The kingdoms of living nature and their representatives: a lot of diversity and interconnections. Training factories are the largest kingdom of living organisms

Traditionally, all living organisms are divided into three domains (superkingdoms) and six kingdoms, but in some regions a different classification system may be indicated.

Organisms are placed into kingdoms on the basis of similarity and celestial characteristics. The signs that are used for the purpose of the kingdom include: the type of culture, the removal of living speeches and reproduction. The two main types of cells are cells.

Primary methods of removing living fluids include absorption and perforation. Types of reproduction include ta.

Below is a list of the six kingdoms of life and a short description of the organisms that live in them

Kingdom of Archaea

Archaea that grow in the lake of “Rank glory” near Yellowstone National Park vibrate a bright color

These prokaryotes were initially invaded by bacteria. There is a unique type of ribosomal RNA present. The storage of these organisms allows them to live in extremely complex minds, including hot tanks and hydrothermal vents.

Domain: Archea;
Organisms: methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles, psychrophiles;
Cell type: prokaryotic;
Metabolism: it is important to remember - for metabolism you may need sour, water, carbon dioxide, sulfur, sulfide;
Harvesting method: strictly speaking - food can be produced by absorption, non-photosynthetic photophosphorylation or chemosynthesis;
Reproduction: without article reproduction by the way of the binary subdivision, bruning or fragmentation.

Note: In some cases, archaea are brought up to the Kingdom of Bacteria, but most scientists see them near the Kingdom. In fact, DNA and RNA analysis shows that archaea and bacteria are so diverse that they cannot be included in the same Kingdom.

Kingdom Bacteria

Kishkova stick

These organisms are classified as related bacteria and are classified under the domain of bacteria. Although most bacteria do not cause illness, they can provoke serious illnesses. For the best minds, the stench multiplies from a menacing liquid. Most bacteria reproduce in the binary variety.

Domain: ;
Organisms: bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), actinobacteria;
Cell type: prokaryotic;
Metabolism of speech: important in appearance - sourness may be toxic, tolerable or necessary for metabolism;
Harvesting method: carefully in appearance - food can be affected by absorption, photosynthesis or chemosynthesis;
Reproduction: without article.

Kingdom of Protisti

Domain: Eukaryoty;
Organisms: amoebas, green algae, brown algae, diatom algae, carbons, mucus forms;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Harvesting method: strictly speaking - the life of hedgehogs includes absorption, photosynthesis and forging;
Reproduction: important without article. occurs in various species.

Kingdom of Ghribi

Includes both single-celled (yeasts and molds) and rich-celled (fungi) organisms. The stench is caused by organisms that decompose and remove living things through clay.

Domain: Eukaryoty;
Organisms: mushrooms, yeasts, molds;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Metabolism: sourness is necessary for metabolism;
Method of food: absorption;
Reproduction: either state or non-state.

Kingdom of Roslini

Extremely important for life on Earth, the fragments of stench create sourness, and provide other living organisms with food, food products, etc. This diverse group contains judiciary and non-judgmental plants, flowery and non-bloomy plants, and so on.

Domain: Eukaryoty;
Organisms: mosses, mosses (flower plants), holos, liverworts, ferns;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Exchange of speech: sourness is necessary for metabolism;
Food method: photosynthesis;
Reproduction: organisms succumb to fermentation over generations. The state phase (gametophyte) is replaced by the stateless phase (sporophyte).

Kingdom of Creatures

This Kingdom has a mustache. These cell-rich eukaryotes lie among the growths of other organisms to support vitality. Most creatures linger around the aquatic habitats and range from the crimson tardigrades to the incredibly large great whales.

Domain: Eukaryoty;
Organisms: moths, amphibians, sponges, mosquitoes, chrobaks;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Exchange of speech: sourness is necessary for metabolism;
Method of food: kovtannya;
Reproduction: most creatures have a state of reproduction, but in some cases there is no state.

Biological systematics is a science that deals with the development of the principles of classification of all living organisms and the addition of these principles to the formation of a complete system. The classification of living organisms conveys a description of their hierarchical placement in the system of organisms. Therefore, with one of these classifications, everything is divided into kingdoms.

Kingdoms of living nature - the largest taxonomic categories in the division of living nature into kingdoms are considered entirely grounded from the point of view of evolution. Apparently, all organisms are divided into two kingdoms (pre-nuclear and nuclear organisms), which include the following kingdoms: insects, plants, mushrooms and creatures. The kingdom of the skin is divided into sub-kingdoms. Let's look at the main categories of the report.

Nuclear-free and subnuclear organisms (prokaryotes) are organisms that do not have a formed cell nucleus. The genetic code looks like a ringed DNA ring present in nucleotides that do not reconstitute the same chromosomes. There is no state process in such organisms. Before prokaryotes, various bacteria are still present, including blue-green algae.

The three other kingdoms of living nature contain eukaryotes. The first of them is Roslini. The most important function of plants compared to other organisms is that they grow autotrophically in order to synthesize organic songs from inorganic ones. Green plants produce photosynthesis, vicor and the energy of dormouse metabolism. In general, photosynthesis is stimulated by the gas reserves of the atmosphere. Thus, plants are the source of energy and energy for all organisms on our planet.

The scheme to finish is complicated. The stench is divided into lower and higher levels. The body of the lower growths is not divided into roots, stems and leaves. Algae carry algae to the lower algae, and chrysophytes, creamy, yellow-green, brown, red, euglenovic, green and other algae. In addition, from the body of taller plants, specialized organs (leaf, stem, root) are dissected and processed. These include moss-like, fern-like, and sap-like types of growths, within which there are different classes.

Mushrooms are a kingdom of living nature that contains signs of both creatures and plants. Mushrooms, as well as plants and flowers; The stench is characterized by high growth and obviousness. As a result, fungi have a heterotrophic type of metabolism, the formation of seeds and other rices. Mushrooms reproduce vegetatively, in a stateless way. The stench mineralizes excess growths in the soil. People can see the illnesses of Roslin and creatures. A large number of drugs have been discovered today to remove antibiotics, vitamins, and hormones. It's no secret that there are a lot of mushrooms in nature. At the borders of this kingdom of living nature there are three types: fungi, oomycetes and myxomycetes.

Representatives of the kingdom of creatures are characterized by certain corrupt authorities from the heights, among them, for example, the exchange of speeches and the climate of Budova. These are similarities to the everyday life. The main product of rice is food. Creatures are heterotrophs, so they eat ready-made organic compounds, due to the inability to synthesize them from inorganic compounds. As a rule, creatures are actively crumbling. Around the world there are approximately two million species of creatures. Like other kingdoms of living nature, creatures are divided into sub-kinds, such as species. Thus, there are single-celled and multicellular creatures that are divided into dozens of types and species. There are up to one of these types of people.

Over the history of humanity, a great deal of knowledge has accumulated about the diversity of living nature. With the help of the science of systematics, all living nature is divided into kingdoms. This article makes it clear which kingdoms of living organisms are studied by biology, their characteristics and characteristics.

The difference between living nature and inanimate nature

Significant signs of living nature:

growth and development;
dikhannya;
life;
reproduction;
respond to the flood from the excessive middle.

It is not easy to isolate living organisms from inanimate nature. On the right is that behind their chemical warehouse there are many similar objects. So, for example, salt crystals can grow. And, for example, the growing plants that reach living nature remain at peace for a long time.

All living organisms are divided into two types: non-clinical (viruses) and clinical how the cells are formed.

As far as all living organisms are concerned, viruses do not infect cells. The stench settles in the middle of the room, screaming from various illnesses.

Another characteristic feature of all living things is the similarity of internal chemical reactions. An important factor is the exchange of speech from the external medium, as well as the response to actions from the external medium.

TOP 4 statisticswhat to read at the same time

All living nature has a powerful classification. Kingdoms, types, classes of living organisms are the basis of biological systematics. Human organisms are composed of two kingdoms: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They are divided into kingdoms that form the hierarchy of the scientific classification of all biological species. Around the kingdom, bacteria, plants, fungi and creatures have been eating forever.

Small 1. Kingdoms of living organisms.

The human body belongs to the kingdom of creatures.

Bacteria

These organisms are carried to prokaryotes, the fragments of the stench do not stain the nuclear membrane. In the middle of the cell there are organelles, DNA is synthesized in the cytoplasm. Stinks linger everywhere, they can be found in the depths of the earth’s surface and on mountain peaks.

Another type of prokaryotes are archaea, which linger in extreme minds. They can be found in hot waters, the waters of the Dead Sea, the intestines of animals, and soil.

Gribi

This group of living nature is quite diverse. The stench is divided into:

droplet mushrooms (there are little droplets that are attached to the surface of the soil behind the help of a mycelium);
yeast ;
mukor - Single-celled mushroom of microscopic size. Behind its obviousness, a thick coating develops, which turns black over time.

Roslini

In the middle of the plant tissue there are organelles, such as chloroplasts, that carry out the process of photosynthesis. Celluloses have a sharp meat wall, the basis of which is cellulose. In the middle of the cell there is a nucleus, cytoplasm and organoids.

Small 2. Budova Roslinnaya Klitina.

Tvarini

The animal meat does not have a meat wall, as in growing plants, which is why their products quickly disappear, for example, the tissues of the meat system. The creatures are actively collapsing, torturing the support-roc apparatus. In the middle of a creature’s body there are organ systems that regulate the functioning of the entire organism.

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№ Biology

Subject The bottom of the kingdoms of the group.

Purpose: Learn about the main kingdoms of living nature.

Zavdannya:

dates of early statements about the classification of living organisms, kingdoms of living nature.

repeat and consolidate knowledge about cells, the history of their origins, and the diversity of cells;

develop verbal and logical thinking, comprehension and analysis in learning;

Because of anxiety, the oldest trees, from a hundred to three hundred years old, die - they are ahead of the rest of the “Science”. This includes forest landscapes, shrouds, farms and places all over the world. It seems that this flows into the trees of most types of forests,” said the lead author of the work, Prof.

The fact that old trees are not good, Prof. Investigators discovered that old trees are killed in large numbers after burning, and in the future, if there is no burning, the stink will die 10 times more often, earlier, faster than ever, through dry land, higher temperatures, felling, etc. The whole world began to see this phenomenon. Similar trends are observed in various geographical areas, such as California's Yosemite National Park, African savannahs, tropical forests of Brazil, and forests of the peace zone in Europe. And the boreal foxes at night.

continue the development of basic robotics with a guide, test tasks, and basic schemes;

learn in your studies more closely to nature, listen to your teacher and your classmates.

Obladnannya: computer; projector; Interactive board; multimedia presentation "The growth of living organisms", table "Scheme for the development of the forest world", table "Scheme for the development of the created world"

The killing of great trees has also been widespread in rural areas of Spodar and in places where people are intensely trying to seize them. We are talking about the loss of the largest living organisms in the world, the largest covered vegetation on Earth, organisms that play a key role in regulating and enriching our world, like Professor Bill Laurence from James Cook University.

It is clear that large, old trees play an important ecological role. There are ecosystems in which up to a third of all birds and creatures live in the knots and hollows of these trees. These trees knit high-quality coal, and also promote the circulation of water and living substances from the soil. The stench strongly creates the smell of trees, which is a place for other organisms to live. The stench permeates the local climate. Great trees provide food for many creatures in the form of fruit, flowers, leaves and nectar, and birds and creatures steal from their empty leaves, for example, the Australian leader, who is under threat of extinction .

Lesson progress

I. Organizational moment.

II. Review of the material covered. Multimedia presentation “Diversity of living organisms”

Today in class we continue to observe the diversity of living organisms, but first of all we need to understand what we already know about living organisms and see those above What will you and I need to practice?

The loss of trees may mean the disappearance of such things, the researchers write. Old trees are rapidly declining through their direct felling, as well as harvesting for agricultural needs, in the event of coma attacks or rapid climate change - estimates Prof.

Researchers consider the problem of the global decline of old trees in the context of the decline of the largest species, for example, elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers and cetaceans. “As these great creatures are known in many parts of the world, we have more and more evidence that old, great trees can be threatened by a similar phenomenon,” the authors of the publication advance.

For which I prepared the experiment, your task will be repeated. Be kind, who wants to show us your knowledge.

What are the most important signs of living organisms?

How do plants evolve into creatures?

Why did botanists worry so much that mushrooms are whole?

Tell us about microscopic organisms.

What does taxonomy mean?

Name the main branches of the world and their representatives

What are the systematics that unite organisms in different groups?

III. Development of new material. It is based on the classification of living organisms. Let's get to know them through their actions.

1. Division of organisms into eukaryotes and prokaryotes. For the visibility of the nucleus in cells.

2 . Reader's information about the examples of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Write the diagram in zosheet:

Prokaryotes are unicellular living organisms that do not have (as compared to eukaryotes) a cellular nucleus. Before them lie ONLY bacteria and archaea.
For example: intestinal stick (bacteria), sera anaerobic bacterium (archaea).

Eukaryotes are living organisms, cells with a nucleus. All organisms, except bacteria and archaea, are nuclear (viruses and viruses are also not eukaryotes, and not all biologists regard them as living organisms).
For example: gut, human, fish, crayfish, fly, etc.)) In short, all mushrooms, creatures, plants and prosts (be it simple)

All rich cells are called eukaryotes.

2. Characteristics of the kingdoms of living nature. Name it, show it, give an explanation.

. Applications of organisms , what do scientists call it? Write down the diagram at Zoshit.

The largest groups of life on Earth are united into kingdoms. Let us marvel at how the kingdoms have shared different forms of life.

***
Kingdom of bacteria (prokaryotes).

Here there are microscopic (usually single-celled) organisms that do not have nuclei in their cells. Cream against bacteria ( staphylococci, vibrioni etc.) are often brought here and primitive unicellular algae - cyanes (or blue-green algae). Blue-green algae is one of the oldest forms of life on Earth. The stench appeared, according to their thoughts, over 2 billion years ago. They can be called algae only mentally, due to the primitiveness of reality.
Kingdom of Protists (Eukaryotes).

In addition to representatives of the kingdom of bacteria, the kingdom of protists is represented by microorganisms that have a nucleus in their cells. The most common representatives of this kingdom are diatoms (diatomic algae), peridine and euglenic algae, as well as other flagellated algae.
Diatoms are classified as the most widespread representatives of the kingdom of protists. There are over 10 thousand of them. different species, most of which are marine inhabitants. Under the lens of a regular microscope, diatoms appear as circles, ovals, stars, etc. However, if you look at a diatom under a closer microscope, you can see that it is dragging the body It’s in a sterling size sink. This is the outer skeleton of the creature from silica. Diatoms cannot collapse on their own and move with water currents. Ale is among procysts and creatures created before self-drying, for example, the single cell flagella of euglena.
Euglenoids contain about 60 species in their lavas. Stinks linger longer in fresh waters.
Kingdom of Roslin.

The whole kingdom is consumed by richly cellular organisms, which do not form on their own and utilize the energy of cellular metabolism to transform inorganic substances into organic ones (photosynthesis). I think that there is no need to draw attention to the representatives of this kingdom - various types of water and land plants with a more complex organization, less than one cell.
Kingdom of mushrooms.

Mushrooms are rarely seen around the kingdom. These are living organisms, neither creatures nor plants, that do not fall under the classification marks of representatives of these kingdoms. Mushrooms include a wide range of spore-bearing organisms, flowers, and fungi (derived and natural).
Kingdom of creatures.

The largest and most representative kingdom. This includes all the organisms that feed on ready-made organic products (leaves and other creatures, preserved with their remains). Animals are exposed to single-celled living organisms (amoebas, ciliates) and large creatures (whales, elephants, fish, giant jellyfish, etc.)
Until what kingdom are the sharks protected to catch us, and to tell us about you?

2. Characteristics of the kingdom of Bacteria. Peculiarities of life, way of life, butts of representatives of the kingdom.

Kingdom of bacteria. Zagalny characteristic.

Almost 2500 views are visible. They wash the cells, but don’t wash the nucleus reinforced by the membrane of the cytoplasm.

Most do not resist chlorophyll and eat ready-made organic substances - heterotrophically.
It is practical to live through: on the ground, on the water, on the wind, on the water, on the bodies of creatures, in the midst of living organisms.

The skins of 20-30 plants reproduce.

Toil is even more important for people.

1) When soil bacteria live, it is necessary to create humus, which is an organic substance that has been decomposed, to contain all the necessary substances for the life of the plants.

2) To purify wastewater, use microorganisms, which in a short time can convert more organic substances from inorganic ones.

3) In the intestines of many animals and people, the microflora interferes, which is designed to poison the hedgehogs that are consumed by the body, and synthesize vitamins (symbiont bacteria).

4) By wandering people you can remove various products, such as acid, silage, alcohol, fermented milk products.

5) Vibration of antibiotics. These words appear to be like bacteria and fungi. The stench calls out the rotten life of other bacteria.

6) Vibration of feed protein.

7) Fermentation of enzymes and genetic engineering. The ability to industrially vibrate insulin, contain alcohols, organic acids, polymeric compounds.

8) Biological methods of combating pests, various bacteria can infect and lead to the death of the pests of the agricultural kingdom.

3. Characteristics of the kingdom of Roslin. Classification of the kingdom based on the application. .

Return the students to the table in the class “Scheme for the development of the forest world”, focusing on the lower and higher forests. Write down the diagram in Zosheet, eagerly respecting the writing of new words.

The fundamental characteristics of the kingdom of plants All living organisms can be divided into four kingdoms: plants, creatures, fungi and bacteria. The signs of the kingdom of Roslin are:

є eukaryotes, so that cells grow to destroy the nucleus;

є autotrophs, which transform inorganic organic substances during the process of photosynthesis using the energy of the sun's light;

lead a clearly inviolate way of living;

unbound by the growing length of this life;

how I’ll spare a living vikorist to make starch;

presence of chlorophyll

4. Characteristics of the Kingdom of Creatures. List the features of the kingdom. He divided them, those with spines and those without spines. .Point the butt.

IV. Hvilina relaxation. Gymnastics for the eyes (do standing while doing your work).

- Close your eyes gently for 5 seconds, then open them. (Repeat 10 times.)
– Marvel at the window, choose the farthest point behind the window and the closest one near the classroom. Alternately watch the dots for 10 seconds. (Repeat 10 times.)

V. Securing the screwed material.

2. L/R No. 1 “Diversity of vines.”

Independent robot

VI. Pouch: learned about the main kingdoms of living nature, the different types of living organisms.

VII. Home improvement: par.4 side 16-17 (catering)

Laboratory robot No. 1

Draw a version of the representatives of the species. Write the name of the branch.

A little bit of history. Aristotle tried to systematize all the objects of nature. Vin mav "go away." Below are the most primitively organized stones, then plants, creatures and people. The process to linear classification took a long time, but then it had to be thrown out, the fragments of living nature objects are not collected in one place. I've been growing up the creatures I've known for a long time. These groups are called kingdoms: the kingdom of growths and the kingdom of creatures. Then there were descriptions of simple single-celled plants and creatures that were not immediately understood, plants that stink and creatures. The stench was seen in a single-room group (sorry). Then they inoculated the bacteria and saw a kingdom in the environment. Later in the kingdom, mushrooms were seen. For us, the stench looks similar to the growths, but the stench of the growths is intensely intense, intense, because, like creatures, they store glycogen, not starch.

Then, living organisms were divided into the kingdoms of Roslyn, Mushrooms, Creatures and Protozoa (unicellular ones) and the kingdom of bacteria, which included all prokaryotes. When bacteria were added, it turned out that the stinks were also divided into two groups, which varied greatly. Apparently, they were divided into two kingdoms: Eubacteria (also known as bacteria) and Archaebacteria (otherwise called Archaea). The remaining ones also do not form nuclei, but their structure is greatly affected by bacteria.

Such a heap of grapes recently. In 1990, a publication dedicated to this topic was published. The division was divided based on the sequence of ribosomal RNA. Previously, in order to describe a new species, it was necessary to identify the organism, describe how it eats, its morphology, and only after which it could be classified, then at the same time classify the organism can be carried out without knowing what it looks like. It is sufficient to sequence (measure the nucleotide sequence) the ribosomal RNA. If the sequence of ribosomal RNA is known for many organisms, then classification will be based on the similarity of these RNAs, and not on the basis of their similarity or peculiarities of metabolism. Several groups of archaebacteria have been described: ribosomal RNA, but the organisms themselves have not yet been studied. What is the significance of the transition to classification based on the similarity of ribosomal RNA? Ribosomal RNA displays diversity in similarities, since the same form can be found in completely different creatures. If you guess a toad, a crocodile or a hippopotamus, then it will appear that they wipe their eyes from the water in a similar manner. All the creatures will remain in different classes. Thus, classification based on ribosomal RNA reflects the similarity of organisms, but often does not reflect the similarity in the way they live. Why is ribosomal RNA itself selected? That's why it's conservative, that's why. It is the part of the genome that changes the most. Below is a tree of sporidity of various organisms. Groups of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes are visible here. This group, high rank, lower kingdom. They are called the super-kingdoms of the domains. The term domain is widely used in various sciences. In the system, “domain” means a group (ranking higher than a kingdom) that includes various organisms, which have a distinct set of mysterious characteristics.

What is it about bacteria and archaea that differentiates them from eukaryotes?

Budova cell of prokaryotes

Prokaryotic cells have a cytoplasmic membrane, like eukaryotic cells. In bacteria, the membrane is double-spherical (lipid bishar); in archaea, the membrane is often single-spherical. The membrane of archaea is composed of ribs that are similar to those that form the membrane of bacteria. The surface of the skin may be covered with a capsule, sheath or mucus. They may have flagella and villi.

The cell nucleus, like that of eukaryotes, is the same in prokaryotes. The DNA is located in the middle of the cell, arranged in an orderly manner and supported by proteins. This DNA-protein complex is called a nucleoid. In eukaryotes, proteins that support DNA are divided into histones, which create nucleosomes (in eukaryotes). And archibacteria histones grow, and the smell is similar to eukaryotes. Energy processes in prokaryotes take place in the cytoplasm on special structures - mesosomes (growths of the cell membrane, which are twisted into a spiral to increase the flatness of the surface, on which ATP synthesis occurs). In the middle of the skin there may be gas bulbs, reserve substances in the form of polyphosphate granules, carbohydrate granules, and fat specks. Sirks may be included (which are created, for example, as a result of acid-free photosynthesis). Photosynthetic bacteria have folded structures called thylakoids, which carry out photosynthesis. Thus, prokaryotes, in principle, have the same elements, but without partitions, without internal membranes. These septa are also part of the cell membrane.

The shape of prokaryotic cells is not so varied. The round clini are called coca. This form can be found in both archaea and eubacteria. Streptococci are cocas, drawn into the lancet. Staphylococcus - tse "grona" coki, diplococcus-coca, united by two cells, sewing - by four, and sarcini - by weight. Rod-like bacteria are called bacilli. Two sticks - diplobacils, pulled into a lance - streptobacilli. Also seen are coryneform bacteria (with extensions at the ends, similar to a club), spirili (long curled cells), vibrions (short curved cells) and spirochetes (curl differently from spiri). Below is illustrated everything that has been said and two representatives of archaebacteria.

If both archaea and bacteria are transferred to prokaryotic (nuclear-free) organisms, their cells perform certain functions. As a result, bacteria can form a lipid bilayer (if the hydrophobic ends are enclosed in a membrane and the charging head is washed on both sides), and archaea can form a monospherical membrane (the head is charged on both sides and in the middle there is one whole molecule; this structure can be thick, lower bilayer). Below is the cell membrane of an archaebacterium.

Bacteria and archaea vary in size and type of RNA polymer. Bacterial RNA polymerases include 4-8 protein subunits, eukaryotic RNA polymerases include 10-14 protein subunits, and archaea of intermediate size: 5-11 subunits. The ribosomes of bacteria are smaller than the ribosomes of eukaryotes and smaller than the ribosomes of archaea (which also have intermediate dimensions).

Photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation

Several types of bacteria and archaea were produced prior to nitrogen fixation. Approximately half of the nitrogen that enters the storage of living organs is fixed by bacteria. Nitrogen fixation, which is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into pulp, is carried out by the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation is one of the most expensive biochemical processes: 16 ATP molecules are consumed to fix one nitrogen molecule. Less effective fixation systems require up to 35 ATP molecules. Basic and non-biological nitrogen fixation. After the production of nitrogen (industrial nitrogen fixation) began, people can successfully compete with biological fixers and the biosphere in the amount of nitrogen that can be fixed.

Nitrogen can only be fixed by prokaryotic organisms. All organisms that fix nitrogen contain similar nitrogenase enzymes. Nitrogenase can only be produced in anaerobic tanks; in the presence of acidity, the enzyme is inactivated and nitrogen fixation is reduced.

Fixed nitrogen goes into organic solutions. This process can be carried out by bacteria and plants. We can no longer convert organic compounds into ammonia. The released ammonia can be converted into nitric oxide, and after fixation by bacteria, nitrogen is released again.

Nitrogen fixation involves approximately 250 strains of eubacteria: azotobacteria, clostridia, etc. Half of these strains are different species of cyanobacteria, formerly called blue-green algae.

As was previously observed, nitrogenase is sensitive to the point of sourness. In his presence, it is inactivated and therefore not negotiable. And the blue-green algae are engaged in photosynthesis, which creates sourness, and the process of nitrogen fixation is incompatible with the process of photosynthesis. As a result, during the day the cyanobacterium oscillator is engaged in photosynthesis, and at night, if photosynthesis does not occur, it is engaged in nitrogen fixation.

A single organism that simultaneously carries out both nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis is the cyanobacterium Anabaena. How does it work? Photosynthesis occurs in most cells (green cells) of light color, and cyanobacteria can absorb nitrogen, dissolving in too much of the environment. However, if nitrogen is not available, it is necessary to proceed to nitrogen fixation. And besides the cells that previously engaged in photosynthesis, they differentiate. The stinks are called heterocysts. These larger walls are covered with a thick shell. Photosynthesis is involved in them, and photosynthetic enzymes are known to them. Nitrogenase synthesis begins at saturation. This shell does not allow any acidity to pass through, and nitrogen fixation occurs in the heterocyst at a time when all other cells are engaged in photosynthesis. Everything that the heterocyst needs for its work (including nitrogen) is removed from the blood cells through special intercellular contacts, and the heterocyst itself supplies the blood cells with the amino acid glutamine (div. There are amino acids in lecture 4) that are synthesized after nitrogen fixation.

Before photosynthesis, there are many representatives of prokaryotes. Previously, we already knew that photosynthesis consists of oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis. There will be resentment when you see cyanobacteria again. Most bacteria in the world carry out at least one of two types of photosynthesis. Photosynthetics and archaea are trapped.

Photosynthesis requires light. In this case, the light strands of the singing range are determined to lie in the “adjustment” of bioantennas, which capture the light quantum. Harsh ultraviolet radiation cannot be absorbed because it destroys DNA and proteins. Roslin reacts with light up to 700 nm.

Prokaryotes exhibit a wide range of species. The simplest scheme for photosynthesis is in the archaea halobacteria, which are located near the Dead Sea. The abundance of these bacteria is due to the presence of carotenoid pigments, which protect cells from phototherapy, which is generally possible due to the high intensity of sleep light. Photosynthesis in halobacteria is carried out by a special protein, bacteriorhodopsin. This protein is located in the cell membrane, captures a light quantum and converts its energy into an electrochemical charge on the membrane (DmH). In the core of the “antenna”, which detects light in bacteriorhodopsin, there is retinal, a light-sensitive molecule, the same as the one found in rhodopsin, the light-sensitive protein of living organisms.

Chlorophylls serve as photoantennas in cyanobacteria and most plants. These are foldable polycyclic parts with the presence of connections.

Let bacteria hesitate

We have looked at the peculiarities of the functioning of prokaryotes, now let’s look at how they procrastinate.

Bacteria can enter into symbiosis with both monocellular and rich cell eukaryotes. Butt - flagellate cyanophore and root. The cyanophore contains two cyanobacteria. If the flagellar cyanophore divides, then each daughter cell receives one cyanobacterium, which then also divides to restore the number of cyanobacteria on the same nofori. If the flagellate contains cyanobacteria, phototaxis occurs, then. Rukh straight to the light and out of sight.

The root can also be placed in the middle of the cell of cyanobacteria, or another species. The bacteria that can live freely and the bacteria-symbionts compete for their powers. Some types of symbionts are deprived of their master and switch to an independent way of living, while other types of cyanobacteria cannot live next to their master. Such theanobacteria that have lost their independence are called cyanella. It is important that the chloroplasts of the living plants evolved through symbiosis. Chloroplast families are long-lived cyanobacteria.

The example of a symbiosis of the creature with unicellular photosynthetic organisms is the tridacna mollusk. The mantle of the mollusk is filled with algae zooxanthellae. Moreover, there are so many of them that the mollusks cannot tighten the mantle in the middle. Algae engage in photosynthesis, and the mollusk ensures its safety.

Many nitrogen-fixing bacteria can live on their own. These species can also stagnate in the bulbs of bean sprouts. As has been said above, eukaryotes are not capable of nitrogen fixation. Therefore, bacteria in symbiosis with rich plants provide them with nitrogen. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the bulbs, which are established on the root of the plant due to the penetration of new bacteria from the soil. The baby below shows the bulbs on the roots of the legume plant. The tissues of such a bulb are filled with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. To isolate the bacteria from the acidity of the weed, they synthesize the protein leghemoglobin, a similar structure to hemoglobin, which binds the acidity and protects the symbionts from its life.

Even plant-like organisms are created through symbiosis of various types of fungi and bacteria, including the already familiar cyanobacteria. These are lichens. To live, they require only a minimal amount of water, so that the bacteria ensure photosynthesis, and the hyphae of the fungus protect the bacteria from drying out and produce water. In the symbiotic state, the bacterium produces a large number of living substances, which are transferred to the fungus, while in the free state it will provide its own consumption. With the depletion of the minds of storage lichens, bacteria and fungi can emerge from a symbiotic relationship and live independently. Lichens are also a form of bacteria.

Another type of symbiosis of representations of bacteria that glow. The luminescence of some underwater fish is due to the fact that symbiotic bacteria live in their organs. Light is enriched with the action of the bacterial enzyme luciferase. The gene that codes for this enzyme is seen and vicorized in scientific research /

Human bacterial symbionts form normal microflora. They live in the intestines, on the skin, on the mucous membranes, safely or protect (in a competitive way, not allowing other, harmful, bacteria to populate these plots), or take their part from the poisoned and synthesized active, necessary people in Itamins. We already guessed the human symbiont gut stick. Altogether, the normal microflora of humans contains approximately 500 species of bacteria. If you drive all the bacteria on the skin or into the intestines of a person, then nothing good will come of it. The role of normal microflora has been studied in sterile animals. In special minds, grow animals (shorts or mice), and wonder what can be done with them without bacteria. It should be noted that it is not good to live. In this manner, the skin of a real person is not just a representative of the species Homo sapiens, and a whole collection of different organisms

Viruses can also be transmitted through state routes, for example, the herpes virus. The herpes virus causes the formation of bulbs on the skin, covered with viral particles ("fever"). Among the population of the region, 70-90% are infected with the herpes virus, 30% have sickness, 10% have genital forms of illness. This way can transmit human immunodeficiency viruses (called SNID - progressive immunodeficiency syndrome), hepatitis B and C (infect the liver), papillomavirus (caused by the growth of the skin epithelium and the creation of beards iv; actions can provoke the development of cancer).

Among everyday illnesses, which are transmitted by state methods, previously for other descriptions of gonococcus, spirochete and eukaryotic organism Trichomonas. For a long time, since the patient had signs of sechostatic infection, and after three days of no symptoms, he was diagnosed with “nonspecific urethritis.” However, in the other half of the 20th century, occurrences of “nonspecific” combustion were found. These include gardnerella, chlamydia, ureaplasma, mycoplasma and other types. Illnesses that are caused by them are caused by the fact that they often pass with few symptoms, become deprived of unmarked symptoms and become chronic. Although one of these daily routines occurs in 30-50% of people, some people (who may have a number of partners) can identify a whole “bouquet” of daily routines. All doctors care that bacteria are safe. However, it has long been shown that these bacteria are not only the cause of sechostatic infections, one of the most important complications of which is infertility, but also low-grade illnesses, manifestations that are simply tired, change according to That's right.

Bacteria gardnerella What is called gardnerellosis - an ignition illness of sechostate nobles - was described in the mid-twentieth century. Gardnerella is slightly larger than gonococa and is characteristic of prokaryotes. In drugs taken for the treatment of patients, the tissue and epithelium of the state tract appear to be “spiced”; These peppercorns are just like gardnerelli. The stench also causes inflammation of the urogenital tract, and the most important consequence of such illness is infertility.

Let's move on to viruses.

Viruses do not lie before prokaryotes. Sometimes they see a kingdom in the environment, sometimes they describe the pose as the kingdoms of nature. There are various problems with the classification of viruses, super studies on the topic of whether viruses are living or non-living. Previously, viruses were considered to be the simplest organisms that had the smallest particles, the smallest proteins and DNA, and they believed that all other organisms were similar to viruses. But now that it is established that viruses cannot live without cells, there is no reason to think that they appeared earlier behind the cells. Perhaps the closest thing to the truth is that viruses are “disconnected” genes. These genes have become autonomous and systems of natural reproduction have emerged.

Regardless of all aspects of shape and size, all viruses are created in a similar manner. All smells are covered with a protein coat and contain nucleic acid – RNA and DNA. DNA can be circular or linear, RNA can be single-circuit or double-circular.

Let's take a look at the particles of the virus from the butt herpes virus. The protein shell of the virus, called the nucleocapsid, is made of proteins and is a regular hexagon. There is also a shell, because the virus breaks down the tissues of the cell membranes, but the body does not attack the fragments of the membranes of its tissue membranes. However, the membranes are encrusted with viral proteins, so the immune system can still recognize the herpes virus. “Guttering” into the membrane is a way to protect the virus. In the middle of the protein hexagon there is a linear double-spiral DNA molecule. Below the right-handed little one there is a picture of a pussy, “stuffed” with particles of the virus that is ripening. The herpes virus multiplies in the cells of the skin epithelium, and when the parts multiply, the virus infects the nerves, and the nerve penetrates the spinal cord. There, the viral DNA is inserted into the genome of the cells of the spinal cord, which, when infected, carries the viral DNA. It is impossible to remove him again, unless you remove him from the spinal cord at once. Other genomic copies can synthesize new viral DNA. If a person's immune system works well, it produces antibodies that protect against the virus. These antibodies do not allow the virus to escape from its hiding place. However, when the immune system is weakened, for example, during a cold, the titer of antibodies in the blood drops, viruses leave the cells of the spinal cord and reach the skin epithelium with a nerve, and there the viruses begin to multiply. That’s why the bulbs that hang around these places, through some kind of virus, having reached the body - most often on the face, on the lips - are called “colds”.

A close relative of the herpes virus is the chickenpox virus. When people get sick with chickenpox, once in life, call in childhood. The whole body of the child is covered with herpetic pustules; Then the chickenpox virus also settles in the spinal cord, and activation of the virus causes burning of the nerves and sagging of the skin, which is called tinea versicolor. The process is painful and can save people a month’s worth of time.

The papillomavirus is very similar to the herpes virus. Principova Budova herself. Transferred to direct contact, including face-to-face contact. Papilomavirus has expanded; This causes the growth of epithelium (warts and papillomas appear). Some types of this virus are oncogenic - they cause cervical cancer in women. This is a form of cancer that is transmitted by state paths. Vaccines have been developed that protect people against this form of cancer.

From the very beginning, people divided all living nature into creatures. This classification is based on the work of Aristotle. Now Karl Linnaeus is the founder of the modern classification of species, who is alive in the 18th century, still dividing living organisms into the growing kingdom of creatures.

In the 17th century, single-celled organisms were developed, they were divided into two kingdoms, and until the 19th century they saw a kingdom nearby - the Protists.

Since the advent of the electron microscope, it has become possible to report on various organisms. It has long been known that some of them have a core, and not others, it was determined to separate all living organisms for this reason.

The current system was formed in 1969, when Robert Whittaker advocated the separation of organisms on the basis of the principle of their food.

Robert Whittaker was the first to see mushrooms in the kingdom.

Kingdom of Roslin

To this kingdom are rich cell autotrophic organisms, cells that form the membrane, which is essentially composed of cellulose. Roslins are divided into the kingdom of the simplest roslins and the kingdom of the greatest roslins.

Kingdom of Creatures

To which kingdom are rich heterotrophic organisms brought, the stinks are distinguished by their own looseness, it is important for the food industry to further enchain the hedgehogs. The cells of such organisms do not dent the thick walls.

Kingdom of Mushrooms

Mushrooms are rich in cell saprophytes, organisms that feed on the process of processing dead organic matter. The stench is eliminated so that as a result of their activities there is no loss of excrement. Mushrooms reproduce in super-sized varieties. The kingdom has a kingdom of fungi and a kingdom of myxomycetes, and people are still complaining about those who bring the rest to the kingdom of mushrooms.

Kingdom of Bacteria

To the kingdom of Bacteria there are single-celled organisms, which form a full-fledged nucleus. There are autotrophic bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria. Call out the bacteria. Bacterial fragments do not have a nucleus and are referred to the domain of prokaryotes. All bacteria stain the thick wall of the tissue.

Kingdom of Protists

Organisms that have cells with a nucleus are most often unicellular. Organisms are taken from the kingdom of Protists on an excessive principle, then, if they cannot be secured to other kingdoms of organisms. Algae and the simplest things are brought to the surface.

Kingdom of Viruses

Viruses are located on the border between living and inanimate nature, including non-clinical creations, which are a set of folding molecules in protein membranes. Viruses can be created only by living in the living tissue of another organism.

Kingdom of the Chromists

A small number of organisms - a dozen algae, a handful of fungal-like organisms - lurk in the warehouse of their cells, 2 nuclei. They have been seen in the kingdom since 1998.

Kingdom Archaea

The first archaea were found in geothermal reservoirs

The simplest prenuclear unicellular organisms, which were among the first to appear on Earth, live not in a sour atmosphere, but in a methane atmosphere, which means they are found in extreme environments.