Arabic hieroglyphs and their meanings. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

Arabic language

Arabic language(in Arabic: اللغة العربية) refers to seven languages ​​and there are approximately 221 million people living in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Chad, Cyprus, Djibout i, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Iran, Libya, Mali, Mauritani, Morocco, Nіgeri, Omani, Palestinian Teritarian, Qatari, Saudivsky Arav, Somali, Sudanі, Siria, Tajikistani, Tanzani, Tunіsі, Turechchinі, Ozbekistani.

There are over 30 varieties of common Arabic, including:

• , which is spoken by nearly 50 million people in Egypt. Due to the popularity of films and TV shows of the Egyptian culture, this dialect is obviously the widest.
• , which supports approximately 22 million people in Algeria.
• Moroccan Arabic, on which nearly 20 million people live in Morocco.
• Sudanese Arabic, which accounts for nearly 19 million people in Sudan.
• Said dialect, which is used by nearly 19 million people in Egypt
• Early Levantine dialect, which accounts for nearly 15 million people in Lebanon and Syria.
• Mesopotamian dialect, which supports nearly 14 million people in Iraq, Iran and Syria.
• Nazhdi dialect, which supports nearly 10 million people in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan and Syria.

Arabic leaf

Arabic leaf wine based on the Nabatean Aramaic leaf. The Arabic leaf has been vicorized since the 4th century. n.e., but the oldest document - written in Arabic, Syrian and Greek languages ​​- dates back to 512 rubles. Not. In the Aramaic language there are fewer vocals, less in the Arabic language, and in the 7th century. New Arabic letters have appeared, adding dots to existing letters in order to eliminate the ambiguous confusion. Next, diacritic signs were introduced to mark short voices, but they are also used only in order to read the Koran out loud without compromising.

There are two types of written Arabic:

1. Classic Arabic language- language of the Koran and classical literature. It appears to be a modern standard Arabic language with a style and vocabulary that is archaic in many countries. It is important that all Muslims are obliged to read the Quran from the original, but many of them rely on the translation in order to understand the text.
2. Suchasna standard Arabic language- a universal language of the Arabic world, as all Arabic languages ​​understand. This is how important it is to design written materials, conduct official lectures, TV shows, etc.

In addition, the skin Arabic edge and region has a moisture variety of common Arabic language. Such different variations of Arabic language often appear in written form, poetry, cartoons and comics, songs and especially literature. There will also be translations of the Bible into a wider variety of Arabic languages.

For the Arabic leaf, the Hebrew, Syriac and Latin alphabet are also used.

Features of the Arabic sheet

• Writing type: abjad.
• Directly on the sheet: words are written horizontally, right-handed to the left, numbers – left-handed to the right.
• Number of letters: 28 (Arabic) – several additional letters are used in Arabic when writing geographical names or foreign words, so as to replace the sounds used in everyday standard Arabic (such as /p/ and bo /g/).
• The Arabic leaf was used in the following languages: Arabic, Azerbaijani, Bosnian, Dari, Hausa, Konkani, Kashmiri, Kazakh, Kurdish, Kyrgyz, Malay, Mandecan, Morisco, Pashto, Persian language/Farsi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sha tanks Tatarska, Tausug, Turkish , Urdu, Uyghur.
• Most letters change their form depending on the position in the word (at the beginning, in the middle, at the end of the word) or so that they stand close to each other.
• Letters that can be written at once are always written at once, both on paper and in other materials in Arabic. The only culprit from this rule is crossword puzzles and videos with vertical writing.
• Long voices /a:/, /i:/ and /u:/ are represented by letters 'alif, yā’і wāw definitely
• Diacritic signs for voices, which are used to indicate short voices, and other special symbols are also used in the Quran. Minor sounds can also be found in religious texts, in classical poetry, in books for children and people who learn Arabic, as well as in other complex texts, in order to avoid ambiguous confusion. Some diacritics are used as decorative markings in book titles, trademarks, letterheads, etc.

Arabic language

The transliteration of vocals has been revealed - this is a variant of the transliteration of ISO 1984 rock. Explore different ways of transliterating Arabic language.

The table shows how the letters change for different positions.

Arabic diacritic voices and other symbols

Arabic numerals and numbers

These numbers are written on a sheet of paper in Arabic and written from left to right. In Arabic, voni are known as “Indian numbers” (أرقام هندية arqa-m hindiyyah). Also, the term “Arabic numerals” is used to describe hundreds of numbers 1, 2, 3, etc.

The first set of numbers corresponds to the current standard Arabic, the second to the Egyptian dialect of Arabic, and the third to the Moroccan dialect of Arabic.

, Hausa), Turecchini. The Arabic leaf was composed of the Nabatean script (4th century AD - 1st century AD), descending from the ancient Aramaic. The Nabatean script was adopted by the Arabic inhabitants of the Sinai region and Eastern Arabia in the 3rd-4th century, as can be seen from the writing from Nemari (328) and the writings of the 4th-6th century, found in the ancient Christian temples of the Sinai region and P. Eternal Arabia.

According to the Arabic linguistic tradition, the Arabic leaf is folded onto the cob 6 tbsp. near the city of Khira, the capital of the Arab Lakhmid princedom, and takes further development in the middle of the 7th century, with the first recording of the Koran (651). The Arabic sheet was structured more phonematically and included more vocal phonemes - 28 letters; The direction of the sheet is right-handed to left. The 2nd half has 7 tbsp. additional signs were introduced, superordinate and sub-ordinal symbols for the differentiation of similar letters, for the identification of long and short voices, the sub-vocals and the number of voices. In the main rice, the Arabic leaf has been preserved to this day. Three of the 28 letters that signify voices are used to designate long voices (alif, vav, ya). Most of the letters are located in the same position as the word of the image (isolated, cob, middle, end). These types of letters are written on a sheet of ligature. The Arabic leaf has a number of different types (“damages”): Kufic script (ornamental and decorative), suls, ruk, nastaliq, naskh, divans, maghribs and others. Of them, for the Drukarsky set, the vikorist is naskh.

Various handwriting varieties of Arabic writing (burn down to the bottom - “divani”, “maghreb”, “talik” and “nastaliq”).

Butt of Arabic ornamental sheet.

The Arabic leaf in the Middle Ages expanded widely among non-Arab peoples as a result of the Arab conquests and the penetration of Islam. Over 20 peoples of the USSR per ear, deyak - until the mid-20s. They vikorized the Arabic sheet, wanting to win and handily cikh mov. Until the end of the 20s. In the USSR, the Arabic alphabet was replaced by the Latin alphabet, and later by alphabets based on Russian graphics. On the cob 20 tbsp. From the Arabic sheet to the Latin alphabet there was a translation of writing in Indonesia, from 1928 - in Turkey, then in Malaysia, as well as Swahili and Hausa in Africa.

• Istrin Art A., Viniknennya and leaf development, . M., 1965;
• Krachkivska Art. A., New research on the history of Arabic writing, “Vcheni zapiski LDU”, 1974 No. 374. Similarity, v. 17, I;
• Shifman I. Sh., Nabatean Power and Culture, M., 1976;
• Gelb I., Zakhidnosemitic silabarii, in the book: Secrets of ancient letters, M., 1976;
• Frederick I., History of the leaf, prov. znyomu., M., 1979;
• Namy Kh. Y., The origins of Arabic writing and its historical evolution before Islam, "Bulletin of Faculty of Arts of Egyptian University", 1935, 3. Arabic Section, adv. 1-112;
• Diringer D., The Alphabet, N.Y., 1953;
• Grohmann A., Arabische Paläographie, Tl 1-2, Das Schriftwesen. Die Lapidarschrift mit 270 Abbildungen im Text, 66 Tafeln, W., 1971;
• Diem W., Untersuchungen zur frühen Geschichte der arabischen Orthographie, 1-2, "Orientalia", 1979, v. 48-49;
• Sourdel-Thomine J., Aspects de l’écriture arabe et de son developpement, “Revue des études islamiques”, 1980, t. 48, fasc. 1.

In most parts of the world, Arabic letters are written "v'azzu", combining the words with one another. In this case, it does not matter whether the text is written by hand or by hand. Another peculiarity that makes the Arabic language difficult to understand is that the text is written right-handed to the left. Let's look at the peculiarities of writing and transcription of Arabic letters.

The hidden ambushes of the Arabic language

Only the Koran, and even scientific, children's and elementary literature are written in voiceless verses, in other cases words are written down without voice. Moreover, when writing a transcription, the Arabic text is not translated, but is written in such a way as to be obvious. Before you begin to write a transcription, a voice is introduced into the words of that speech.

When writing texts with a voice, the most frequently used words are pani, fatha and kasra (symbols of voices), shadda (symbol of the sub-war) and tanvin (close to the edge rarely and with the sign of nunation).

Sometimes you can add in the text sukun (a sign of the presence of a vaslu (a sign of the presence of a glottal stop), as well as a hamza (reinforces two voice sounds of one kind)).

Features of transcription

The discovery of unique sounds (pharyngeal, emphatic, interdental), which are common in most European languages, significantly complicates the task for people who are trying to translate Arabic letters into transcription. Such a sound can only be conveyed more closely to Aja.

Today there are two types of transcription. Science - with the most accurate expression, and practicality, which allows you to approximately imagine how Arabic letters are written. Translation, or more precisely transliteration, is based on additional symbols of the Russian or Latin alphabet. The most popular transcriptions, both practical and scientific, were developed by Arabists Krachkovsky and Yushmanov.

Alphabet

The Phoenicians who came before Vin include not only all of their literature, but also graphic images specific to the language's sounds. These are the same Arabic letters as “sa” (similar to the soft interdental English th), “ha” (the sound of a vidihu, similar to the sound a dog makes when dihanna), “zal” (a jingling sound that comes out when you put the tip Move between the teeth and you will hear “sa”), “dad” (exit when you hear the sound “d” and then bring your mouth back and slightly lower the slit), “for” (an emphatic sound similar to “z”, but is also visible when you enter back language and slightly lowered lower slit), "hain" (similar to the sound in French "r").

It is worth remembering that all the letters of the Arabic alphabet are consonant. To designate voices, special superordinate or subordinate vocal signs are used, which indicate the sounds “i”, “u” and “a”.

If you listen to people speak in Arabic, then they have slightly different voices. However, with different variations, there are no more than consonant sounds. Therefore, the sign-voice can sound like “e” (in most cases), and in diphthongs with hard vowels it sounds like “o”. With the sign “sukun” they are already understood with the clear sound of “e”.

The vocalization sign “i” can be transformed into “and” with hard vowels, and the vocalization axis “u” rarely changes its sound in classical Arabic, but in some dialects the transition to the “o” sound becomes more frequent.

How many letters are there in the Arabic alphabet? There are 28 and all the stench is loud (the first letter of the alphabet is “alif”). One letter can always be equated with one sound. For example, the letter “ba” (another in the alphabet) is interpreted as the hard sound “b” in the word “ram”, but at the end of the word there is no sound (in Russian oak is pronounced as “dup”, in Arabic there will be no such thing).

Features of writing

Arabic letters are more complex when written, especially for beginners. Before speaking, “v’yaz” is used not only by the Arabs, but also by other Turkic peoples, as well as by people who speak my Pashto or Urdu. The writing is made from the right hand to the left.

The writing process itself looks like this:

1. The only part of the letters that is written right away is that when you write it, you don’t need to wipe the pen off the paper.
2. Next, parts are added that are included in the letter’s graphics, but you won’t be able to write them without a screw. Before them specks can be seen, vertically and strewn with rice.
3. If necessary, raise a voice.

The very writing of the skin letter lies beneath the growth of the word. Arabic letters are most often written in several types of accents (to stand firmly, at the beginning or at the end of the word, in the middle). There are only 6 letters of blame: “alif”, which is always written separately, as well as “far”, “zall”, “ra”, “zayn” and “vav”, which does not connect with the symbol that follows them.

Quite often, many people begin to read words in translation. And this is a headache. To learn Arabic words correctly, you need to start with learning the alphabet and skin letters. Once you have mastered the alphabet well, you can move on to simple and everyday phrases.

Arabic Abbet

Arabic Abbet consists of 28 letters, which take different shapes depending on whether they stand on the cob, in the middle, or at the end of the words, which are written side by side. You can understand the Arabic alphabet only after learning each letter and sound over the course of 20 lessons (for the sake of convenience, you can do this). In this lesson you will learn 4 letters and 6 sounds. Let's get started.

Arabic leaf

Literi ا і د, sound [d]

Arabs write right-handed to the left, and an Arabic book begins there, where a Russian one ends. Therefore, it is necessary to publish from the “remaining” side.

Arabic letters are slaughtered in height and in patterns along the line of the row. We compare them with the first letter of the Arabic alphabet - alif*, Which is a vertical boundary. For the originals, it is necessary to completely accept the height of the alphabet 8-9 mm, which is even higher than in most Arabic handwritings.

* The letter alif itself does not mean any sound. These meanings in the Arabic sheet will be explained in the coming lesson.

Right 1. Rewrite the right hand to the left, adjusting to the size of the letter alif:

ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ا

Litera د (far), Which means the vowel sound [d], close to the sounds of the obvious Russian, exceeds half of the alif in height, written down to the beast. The lower rounded parts lie on the line of the row.

Right 2. Rewrite the right-hander to the left, keeping distance from the alphabet:

ا د ا د ا د ا د ا د

Hard, soft and middle notes

An important feature of the Russian language is the so-called hard and soft voices. To align, for example, the same position, we respect that the tip of the tongue in both cases occupies the same position - at the upper teeth. The filling of the voice (in the first stage - hard, and in the other - soft) lies in the formation of other parts of the language: if the middle part of the language is raised and close to the hard palate (middle part of the tongue), then a soft voice comes out ; If the back part of the voice is raised to the soft palate (the back part of the tongue), then a hard voice comes out. This difference in the emerging language can be explained, as one can clearly discern the Russian influences, alternately changing their infusion:

[in – in b – in – in b – in – in b – in – in ]
[z – z z – z – z z – z – z z – z – z z]
[l – l – l – l – l – l – l – l ]
[n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n ]
[s – s b – s – s b – s – s b – s – s b]

In this case, you can note that the hard parts have a similar shape, and the soft parts have a similar shape, the fragments of the middle and back parts of the mouse in these cases occupy approximately the same positions as in the case of vimov, vidpov same [and] that [i ].

Arabic Prigolosny د occupies an intermediate position between Russian hard [d] and Russian soft [d b].

We call such voices average. Having continued our equalization with vocalists, we can say that The middle notes have an e-like tone.

Short voices and voices

Golosnykh letter in the Arabic alphabet neither. To indicate short vocal sounds, use the icons that are written above or below these vocal letters, after which the vocal sounds come. Name the icons with voices.

Short voice [a] is represented by a small, stale rice above the letter. For example, a warehouse [sic] is depicted like this: دَ

To correctly understand the Arabic [a], position your mouth in such a way as if you were going to say [e] in the word ci, and, without changing the position of your language, try to understand [a].

The Arabic language can be clarified by the way of alignment with Russian warehouses [sic] and [sic]:

From this point of view, it is important that the Arab warehouse, as a type of voice and voice, occupies the middle, intermediate position between Russian warehouses [sic] and [dya].

Right 3. Read right-handed to the left, correctly identifying the short word and rewrite.

دَ دَ دَ دَ دَ دَ دَ دَ دَ دَ

Short voice [i] indicated on the sheet with the same little graphic under the letter for example, دِ [di].

The Arabic short vocal [i] occupies a middle, intermediate position between the Russian [i] and [i]. Zgіdny [d] in front of him don't get soft, equals the Arabic language with the Russian [di] ta [di].

Right 4. Read right-handed to the left, correctly observing the short warehouse دِ , with special respect for the presence of damage د . Rewrite warehouses.

دِ دِ دِ دِ دِ دِ دِ دِ دِ دِ

Right 5. Read right-handed to the left, correctly identify the short phrases دَ і دِ, rewrite them.

دَ دِ دَ دِ دَ دِ دَ دَ دِ دَ دِ دِ دَ دِ

Short voice [y] on the sheet it is indicated by an icon above the letter, on a crystal with a very large head, for example, دُ [du]. Its sound is close to Russian [u].

Right 6. Read right-handed to the left, with utmost respect for the “middle” of Vimova and for the consistency of the voice [y]. Rewrite warehouses.

دُ دُ دُ دُ دُ دُ دُ دُ دُ دُ

Right 7. Read right-handed to the left, correctly identifying the vowels and voices [а], [і], [у], and rewrite them.

دَ دِ دُ دِ دُ دَ دُ دَ دِ دُ دِ دَ دَ دُ دِ دِ دَ دُ

If after a subvocal sound there is no desired vocal sound, then a special letter is written above this letter voice visibility icon you see a small group of ranks sukun, for example:

دَدْ

دِدْ

دُدْ

Arabic jingles, similar to the language of the Russian language, preserve the jingle (not become too loud). It is necessary to carefully guard this area, not allowing it to disappear.

Litera ر and sound [р]

Litera ر (ra) It is a bow, as it is written right-handed-down-left-handed, and it crosses the line of the row. The upper part is slightly tilted to the left and rises above the row line by approximately 2 mm; The lower row part turns sharply to the left, falling 2-3 mm below the row line. Axis letter ra bilya alifі far:

ادر

Right 8. Rewrite right hand left.

ادر ادر ادر ادر ادر ادر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر

Litera ra denotes a hard vowel [r], similar to the original Russian one, but appears to be more energetic. This sound in Arabic is never softened before [i]. The voice [a] after [p] produces a “back” shade, like in the Russian word clave.

Right 9. Read right-handed to the left, energetically seeing ر, not remembering it before [i] and correctly seeing [a]. Rewrite.

Audio for رَرُرِ :

Right 10. Read right-handed to the left, correctly identifying the vocal [a] after د and after ر.

دَرَ دِرُ رَدْ رِدْ دَرْ رُدْ

Right 11. Read, following the rules of Vimovi (in a loud voice through the first warehouse). Rewrite, spreading out the voice approximately on the same horizontal, not too close to the letter.

Transcription

Transcription is the mental recording of the sounds of a language with a different level of accuracy. We use a transcription based on the Russian alphabet with a number of additional icons. This transcription does not convey any nuances of Arabic sounds, but is entirely dependent on the development of the sound-letter structure of the Arabic word and as an additional step for mastering the Arabic writing system.

Transcription conveys both vocal and vocal sounds. Thus, the sound of دَرُرْ is transcribed as [darur].

Right 12. Write down the transcription (transcribe) the sound connection to the right 11.

Today's red Arabic script

Arabic Abbet(sometimes Arabic or else v'yaz)- abetka, which is used to record Arabic language and (in a slightly changed appearance) other languages, including Persian and singing Turkic languages. It consists of 28 letters. The Arabic leaf is written right-handed to the left.

The Arabic alphabet plays an important role in the world as an abet to Islam and the Koran. It expanded at once due to the expansion of Islam. Today, Arabic is the most widely written alphabet in the world after the Latin alphabet. Arabic alphabet vikorist languages: Arabic, Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, Urdu, Malaysian, Java.

1. History

The Arabic abetka has been popular in the Arab world since the 4th century of our era, and with the expansion of Islam it has become popular in many countries. It is important that the Arabic alphabet is similar to the ancient Nabatean alphabet, a type of Aramaic that was used in the Arabic era long before Islam. The Nabataean script was used by the Arabic inhabitants of the Sinai region and Eastern Arabia in the 3rd-4th centuries, as can be seen from the writing from Nemari (328 ku) and the writings of the 4th-6th centuries, found in the ancient Christian temples of the Sinai region islands of Eastern Arabia.

The Arabic leaf remained formed on the cob of the 6th century near the town of Khira, which was the capital of the Arab Lakhmid princedom. The first entry of the Koran in the Arabic alphabet dates back to 651 years. The Arabic sheet was formulated more phonematically and included extra vowel phonemes - 28 letters. Straighten the sheet from right to left. In the other half of the 7th century, additional minor, superordinate and sub-ordinal signs were introduced to differentiate similar written letters, the designation of long and short voices, subdivision of voices and the number of voices. In the main rice, the Arabic leaf was preserved until now.

The letters of the Arabic alphabet have historically evolved in the same order as those of the Phoenician alphabet, which is similar to Arabic. In this case, 6 letters that do not bear any resemblance to the Phoenician alphabet are placed at the end:

This order is called “abjad”, because of the first letters: alif, ba, jim, far. Before the transition to Indian (so-called “Arabic”) numerals, letters were used to designate numbers, and their numerical values ​​corresponded to the order in Abjadi. Nezabar, after the transition to Indian numerals, the order of the alphabet was changed to the current one. However, the Arabic word that means “alphabet” is أبجدية abjadiya,- Dosi will tell you about the old order.

With the influx of Islam and Arabic culture, the rich people, who do not have a genetic connection with Arabic, began to vikorize the Arabic alphabet. Movies for Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan vikorist Arabic sheet. Until the 1920s, Arabic sheets were painted in Turechchyn. Arabic script can be learned in Kashmir, in parts of Malaysia, in India, Somalia and even in African coasts as far as Tanzania.

2. Calligraphy

Calligraphy (Greek for “garden leaf”) has long played an important cultural role in the countries of the Arab world. It is used not only on important documents, but also for the purposes of image-creative art.

There are important reasons for the founding of calligraphy as a form of mysticism itself in the Arab world. The “cursiveness” of the Arabic language and other features complicated the adaptation to the extreme and contributed to the development of the Drukar verstat, as well as the publication of books (especially the Koran), legal and other documents of the Arab world for many centuries If Gutenberg is still lying in the rewriting in hand.

Another possible important reason is religion. The Koran does not prohibit the depiction of people and creatures in little ones and paintings, but the expansion of Islam in the world in the early years of the decline of the faith, which had already taken root at the Close Gathering, was directly against such an image-creative mystique. Therefore, according to the artistic design, Islamic artists created unique images of people and creatures, and indulged in little “Arabian character”, based on strictly geometric forms, multi-colored ornaments, and calligraphy. Therefore, Arabic calligraphy was initially used not only for the purpose of preparing copies of the Koran (the first and for a long time the main method of copying), but also for all other types of creative art, for example, on porcelain and metal virobahs, for kilims and others. textile products, on coins and as architectural decoration (important on mosques and churches).

2.1. Calligraphic style

One of the oldest styles of Arabic writing is Kufe, or else Kufic(Arabic: كوفي, from the name of the city of Kufa).

The font that has become the standard writing method for Arabic language is naskh(Arabic: نسخ "Copy").

Some calligraphic styles were used only with a decorative method, then. for caligrams – artistic creations of calligraphers. This font Thuluth(Arabic ثلث "Tretina") with wide, free strokes.

3. Structure

The Arabic alphabet consists of 28 letters, each of which represents a vowel sound (among other peoples who study this sheet, there are additional letters). Words are written right-handed to left. The shape of the cutaneous letter varies depending on whether it is located on the cob, in the middle or at the end of the word. There are three short and three long voices (a, i, u; ā, ī, ū). For the presentation of long-time vikors, leteri alif, wow ta ya. A set of special characters, developed in the 8th century BC. It is also sometimes used to display short vocal endings and some grammatical endings; in other cases they are omitted from the sheet. Arabic words often begin with the same year, followed by a voice.

4. Designation of voices

Skin with 28 letters, cream of letteri alif, indicates one voice. The appearance of the letter changes accordingly to its position in the middle of the word. All letters of one word are written at once, except for six letters (alif, distant, halle, ra, zay, vav), so as not to coincide with the leading letter.

Alif is the only letter of the Arabic alphabet that does not indicate the same vowel sound. Depends on the context, you can use it to assign a long voice, huh? (Div. below), because as an additional sign, it does not have its own sound.

5. Designation of voices

In calligraphy, for stretching the rows of vikoryst, there is also a special form of letters caf, which is called “cafe with a stroke” or “café caf”. Regardless of the graphic form of the original cafe, it is encoded in the Unicode code with the symbol (U+06 AA). So, just like the connections between the letters, this form of letter caf can stretch to any width.

10. Arabic numbers

Since the 8th century, the ten-position number system, with modified Indian numerals, has been used to record numbers. Numbers in the middle are written to the right.

11. Vykoristannya in other languages

The expansion of the Arabic alphabet occurred in parallel with the expansion of Islam. Zgodo Arabic alphabet, having become a sprimaty yak "Istinno іslamsky", I Bagato Mov Africa became Vikoristovati Yogo on writing (at that number, yaki wounded Vikoristovani, aim, Persian abstract of the Yavanska Mova). In regions with other languages, groups of the population that followed Islam tried to preserve the Arabic alphabet, regardless of the praise of the new language, for example, the Belarusian Arabic alphabet was created. At the same time, the Arabic alphabet was replenished with additional letters to mark the sounds found in the Arabic language.

The Unicode codebase has registered 135 letters (not necessarily positional forms) that are common in the Arabic alphabet, but are also translated into various worksheet systems based on the Arabic language. A number of letters of the “extended Arabic alphabet” are also used in Arabic texts to translate sounds found in classical Arabic - for example, such as Ukrainian sounds in, g, p, c, h. Urdu, MS-DOS, on Linux-based systems. For the “laptop for 100 dollars” there is also a new keyboard layout, including other things.

The Arabic keyboard, of course, requires a double (Latin / Arabic) so that you can enter file system paths and web addresses into your computer. There is also ambiguity here: when the Latin part of the Arabic keyboard is marked as QWERTY, in the regions of the Maghreb, where the Latin alphabet is dominated by French, the Latin part of the keyboard is marked as QWERTY. bottom with French layout AZERTY.

Div. also

Notes

Literature

• The current Ukrainian-Arabic dictionary contains approximately 12,500 words/Kiev. national University im. T. Shevchenko; comp.: A. Subhi, Y. KOCHERZHINSKA; zag. ed.: Sivkov I. V. ta in. – Kiev: Kiev University, 2009. – 436 p.
• Kovalov A. A., Sharbat G. Sh. Handyman from Arabic language. - M: publishing company "Skhidna Literature" RAS, 1999.

• Khalidov B. S. Handyman from Arabic language. - Tashkent: View. "Ukituvchi", 1977.
• Yushmanov N.V. Grammar of literary Arabic language. – 1928.
• Krachkovska St. A., New research on the history of Arabic writing, “Vchenyi zapiski LDU”, 1974 No. 374. In similar knowledge, v. 17, I;
• Shifman I. Sh., Nabatean Power and Culture, M., 1976;
• Gelb I., Western Semitic silobaries, in the book: Secrets of Old Letters, M., 1976;
• Michel Neyreneuf et Ghalib Al-Hakkak, Grammaire active de l'arabe, Le Livre de Poche, collection "Les langues modernes", 1996;
• R?gis Blach?re et Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Grammaire de l'arabe classique, cinqui?me ?dition, Maisonneuve et Larose, 2004;
• The World's Writing Systems, ouvrage collectif sous la direction de Peter T. Daniels et William Bright, "Arabic Writing" by Thomas Bauer, Oxford University Press, 1996
• 2000 مصطفى
• Pihan, A.P. Notice Sur Les Divers genres d?? 1856.
• Namy Kh. Y., origins of Arabic writing and its historical evolution before Islam, "Bulletin of Faculty of Arts of Egyptian University", 1935, 3. Arabic Section, p. 1-112;
• Diringer D., The Alphabet, NY, 1953;
• Grohmann A., Arabische Pal?ographie, Tl 1-2, Das Schriftwesen. Die Lapidarschrift mit 270 Abbildungen im Text, 66 Tafeln, W., 1971;
• Diem W., Untersuchungen zur frhen Geschichte der arabischen Orthographie, 1-2, "Orientalia", 1979, v. 48-49;
• Sourdel-Thomine J., Aspects de l'criture arabe et de son d'veloppement, Revue des tudes islamiques, 1980, t. 48, fasc.