Laws the decay rate. Vidkrittya G. Mendel laws of inheritance. Mind the law of the independent inheritance

Forward, the idea of ​​differentiating nucleus subtypes of the germ cell, which can develop, was caught by V. RU. in 1883 p. Visnovki Ru served as a point of reference before the establishment of the theory of germinal plasmas, which was left out of its residual form in 1892. Weisman clearly pointed out chromosomes on the nose of the decaying bureaucrats.

From the ear of Ru, 1883, and later Weisman caught a glimpse of the line growth of decay factors in the chromosomes (chromative grains, according to Roux, and according to Weisman) and late split chromosomes before the hour of bacilliosis.

Developing an idea about an irregularly decaying podil, Weisman logically develops an idea about two clearly spaced cells in the body - embryonic and somatic. First, without interruption in the transmission of decay information, "potentially immortal" and giving the ear to a new body. Other such authorities do not conceal. Also, the vision of two categories of clitin is not very large and positive for the development of genetics.

V. Valdeyur at 1888 p. proponuvav term_n chromosome. Robots of botanists and trivialists prepared the primitive understanding of the laws of G. Mendel, written in 1900.

Vidkrittya G. Mendel laws of inheritance.

The honor of discovering some of the basic laws, how to supervise the shape of the hybrid, should be due to the botanist-amateur Johann Gregor Mendel. In their robots, they have been vying from the period from 1856 to 1863, they have discovered the fundamentals of the laws of slump.

The first of the yogo uvaga was beaten with a vibir ob'єkta. For his doslidzhen Mendel picked the peas. For such a choice, it was, in the first place, those who peas - suvoriy samozapilyuvach served, іtsely reduced the power of bringing in an unadorned file; in a different way, at that hour there were a lot of varieties of peas, which were seen for the decilcom by the usual signs.

Mendel trimmed 34 varieties of peas from different farms. Writing two different kinds of inversions, keeping the stench of their signs invincible when breeding without breeding, they were chosen for experiments of 22 varieties.

Mendel, having seen the past from the growing varieties of peas, will come up with one familiarity (mono-hybridized). In all the slides from 7 pairs of varieties, the phenomenon was dominated by the first generation of hybrids, Sazhere and Noden. Mendel uviv pontetya dominant and recessive sign, having entered dominant signs, as the crossing of the hybrid growth line is absolutely invisible, or may even be invincible, recessive that is, when they are hybridized, they get ready. Then Mendel later zoomed in to give a better estimate of the frequencies of the emergence of recessive forms in the middle of the number of sites every hour.

For a more general analysis of the nature of the slump, Mendel is able to evolve more and more generations of hybrids, so that they can clash between themselves. As a result, we renounced the design of the following fundamental principles:

1. The manifestation of the ambiguity of recessive signs.

2. The phenomenon of splitting is a sign of hybrid organisms in the past. Bulo is established by a number of regularities of splitting.

3. Revealing not only some natural patterns of splitting behind new, morphological signs, but the second appearance of the relationship of dominant and recessive inclinations of the middle forms, in view of the winter, not seen in their houses

In such a rank, Mendel took the lead up to the problem of spilling over to the fall. inclinations that is, by their value signs to organism. For rakhunok perekombinatsii deposit(For this reason, V. Johannsen called the makings genes.), with the development of zygotes, there are newer makings, which can be enlarged by the difference between individuals. Tse stanovische formed the basis of the fundamental Mendel's law. the law of gamete purity.

Experimental studies and theoretical analysis of the results of the study, Victory by Mendel, have marked the development of science for a quarter of a century.

Development of biometric methods

Individual views are not necessarily related to the difference in the genetic structures of these individuals; the stench can be tied with the brains of life. That said, robustness about genetic evidence can be deprived of the analysis of a great number of individuals. First, having turned his respect to mathematical laws in the individual ministry, he was a Belgian mathematician and anthropologist A. Quetelet. Winning became one of the forerunners of statistics and theory of morality.

At that hour, more important nutrition was about the possibility of transmission in recessions, the improvement of the average characteristics of the signs, which are promoted in the context of individuals. A few of the previous ones took care of the food. For their significance, Galton's robots were seen, who took a tribute about the growing up of people in people. Then Galton vivivivvivvivvivvivshim the size of the wines of the quota at the spare peas and dyyshov visnovka, so that the offspring will be passed on to the deprivation of a small part of the wickedness, as in the fathers. Galton, having tried to overcome his caution with a mathematical viraz, having covered a great series of robots from the mathematical and statistical foundations of the decline.

Galton's ambassador K. Pirson continued to advance the robot on a wider scale. Most recent food has become a classic pre-dinner meal, which was ruined by Galton and Pirson and his last post, bulo viconano 1903-1909. V. Johannsen, like a beast of respect for the production of genetically one-sided material. As a result of the analysis, Johannsen gave a precise definition of the genotype and phenotype and the basis of the modern intelligence of the role of individual interest.

Cytological bases of genetics

In the 70s - 80s rocks of the XIX century. The description of the mitosis and behavior of chromosomes from the hour to the daughter, which led to the thought, that the structure is indicative of the transmission of decay potential from the mother's daughter to her daughters. Rospodil material of chromosomes on two equal parts is susceptible to cinnamon hypothesis, the same chromosomes have a genetic memory. The grafting of chromosomes in twarins and roslin has led to the development of the skin type of twarins being characterized by the singular number of chromosomes.

As evidenced by E. van Benedon (1883), the fact that the number of chromosomes in cells is slightly higher, less in those cells, can be explained: when the nucleus of the cells is too late, the number of chromosomes is too high, the number of chromosomes After the last delay, it is necessary to stand up to the process of producing up to a fast number in the gametes just as quickly.

At 1900 p. Independently one view of one K. Correns from Nimechchina, G. de Fries from Holland and E. Chermak in Austria have seen in their prelude to earlier laws and, having spoken on his robot, they published it again in 1901. great interest in the sharpest regularities of decay. Cytologists have identified material structures, the role of those behaviors could be unambiguously linked to Mendelian laws. Having struck such a sound at 1903 r. V. Setton is a young scientist of the famous American cytologist E. Wilson. Hypothetical evidence about the decay factor, the presence of a single set of factors in gametes, and sub-line - in the zygotes, the formation in the chromosomes was discarded. T. Boveri (1902) presented evidence for the role of chromosomes in the process of decay transmission, showing that the normal development of the sea jerk is deprived of the presence of all chromosomes.

The second insight into Mendel's laws, the development of the concept of the gene as an elementary unit of the decline speech, should be transmitted from the father to the site, it’s worthwhile to mutuvati, recombining with the genetics of the same kind of clarification. The mechanism of the decay rate and the mendelian regularities is evident in all organisms - from those who find them to the simplest. All of them have established the presence of genes, which are transmitted to the offspring and recombine in a new, localization and linear growth in chromosomes, the genetic pictures of different organisms are put together on the basis of statistical reports of homologous homology.

For a quarter of a century, the end of the first stage, the development of genetics was revealed about the nature, that gene structure was significantly lost: in the pre-sluggish microorganisms, the folding structure of the gene was residually reduced, the base of genetic analysis was expanded. Iakshcho ob'ykami doslіdzhennya for Mendel that the first mendelіstіv bouly roselini and ridge creatures (gryzuni, birds), so that we will not be able to deny offspring when the order of dozens and hundreds of individuals have been bred (there are many complete bases for men and women). Drosophiles became drosophiles, so they took care of the offspring of close to tens of thousands of individuals (it allowed the analysis of the phenomenon of growth and the exchange of factors localized in homologous chromosomes).

Thus, the essence of the theoretical concept of the gene, after Morgan, is in the offensive: the gene is a material unit of decay, is indicative of the biological activity and phenotypic behavior of organisms; genes grow in chromosomes in a lineal order; the skin gene pretends to be the path of the subordinate of the mother's gene. With a little rice of such an understanding of the gene, it was too much of a statement about its style. In fact, it’s a trivial hour that the gene is interpreted as a rest, it’s a distant decaying corpuscle, it’s included in the metabolism of the cell’s and the body as a whole, so that it’s practically invisible in the minds flowing into unknown factors. As a matter of fact, the genotype of an individual is often represented as a mosaic of genes, and the organism of an individual is often represented as a mechanical bag, which is a sign of discrete recessionary officials. In the methodological plan, the weakness of such a statement about the gene, about the interaction between the genotype and the phenotype of the Bula individual, is mechanistically simplified, the prevention of dialectical links in the internal and called mental systems, the process of the biological systems. Respectfully, the cause of mutations is the essence of the internal, but the minority is autogenetic, and the call is seen from the internal.

Intensive revision of new experimental data in the light of the new possibilities of the chromosomal theory of decay. Began to put on the basis of a statement about the genotype as a simple sum of isolated genes. Vivchennya vzaєmodії genіv called before that some signs began to be posed from the bottom of our generations, and a water hour injected with one gene, becoming wider and wider. Tse, at his own devil, called to the glance of the uyavlennya about the genius as the sharpness of the single falloff, to the cleverness of the interconnection and the interconnection. Suto Postupovo morfologіchnі pіdhodi to traktuvannya ponyattya gene steel dedalі bіlshe dopovnyuvatisya fіzіologіchnimi i bіohіmіchnimi traktuvannyami scho digit mіroyu rozhituvalo klasichnu kontseptsіyu gene led to vstanovlennya zv'yazku gene of obmіnnimi Process klіtini that organіzmu zagalom to rozumіnnya zmіnnostі i, otzhe, lishe vіdnosnoї stіykostі ... gene. The whole process has taken a hard time to get rid of it, if it has been delayed from the mutagenic series of X-ray exchanges and some chemical speeches.

Many of the new characteristics of the gene were theorized by Morgan's own robots. The stench of the evolu- tion of the understanding of a gene can be easily heard. The most recent concept of the gene by Morgan was found in the Nobel lecture (in the cob text), read from the heart 1934 p. At the new age, we should put nutrition: as the nature of the elements of the decline, as Mendel postulates as the essence of theoretical odds; scho є genes; Why is it right that genes were localized in chromosomes, to see them as material ones, as chemical ones in the general order, not molecules? Consider the following: “Among genetics in the midst of genetics, in point of view of the nature of genes, they stink real or abstractions, so on ryvn, as there are many genetically genetics, it’s not even possible often. In both cases, the unit is associated with a specific chromosome and can be localized there by way of genetic analysis. Moreover, since the gene is a material unit, the fault is due to the introduction of a pre-singing point in the chromosome, and before that, even in the case of the first hypothesis. To that, in practical genetic robots baiduzh, which point of view dotrimuvatisya. " However, Morgan thinks at the price of food more precisely: "The message of the tribute, taken out in this hour, I cannot but realize that genetics operates on the genome, as on the material part of the chromosome."

The theory of the Morgan gene is spiraling on experimental data, which is mainly applied to the clerical level. Tsya theor_ya Bula is visible to the achievements of the classical period in the development of genetics. I would like to know about the gene of Morgan's type to grow strongly, in the head of his rice the concept of the gene is of its own significance. It should be borne in mind, in the wake of the morning, before the morphological report about the genesis of the same decline ("material analysis" of the gene), until the new age of the need for more morphological changes in the preliminarily basic more decryption physical and chemical processes, which will make sure that there are no generations. genetic decline Mendel gene

Slid means those who are in the twenties of A.S. Serebrovskiy and її school established, that from the genіv of drosophila it is stored in a series of line-of-the-line growths, the growth between the bright ones twisted, for example, near the presence of some deer bristles on those. The price was superfluous to the Morgan statement about the gene as elementary, not similar to any single decay rate. Ale oskіlki at the end of the hour the Morgan concept took over the whole camp, then the new Dumka could change only if the genetics of microorganisms developed, if the possibility of understanding the fine structure of the gene in the physiology became possible. The problems of the development of genetic theory were considered by the team, but in the methodological development of the Darwinism, it was more prosunutiy, but the genetics of the whole period of their development (the philosophical basis can be qualified in the natural sciences). To that skin stage of its development, genetics was transformed by Darwinism.

People were zapped by the laws of understanding. What children are similar to their fathers? Chi є risik transmissions of low-grade illnesses? The food supply was no longer dependent on the restaurant until the 19th century. Himself to Mendel, he went into the distance to accumulate all the knowledge accumulated with those, and to establish concrete regularities with the help of folding analogical slips.

Mendel's addition to the outgrowths of genetics

The basic laws of understanding signify - the principle, from the point of view of certain characteristics, are transmitted from the father's organisms to the offspring. Їх thanks to the merit of Gregor Mendel, who spent a lot of food to the end.

The smartest evidence of the discrete nature of the decay factors. In other words, a specific gene appears as a dermal sign. The first picture of the boule is stimulated for corn and fruit. Remaining є a classic object of genetic predictions.

The merits of Mendel are important to reevaluate, how to speak and last. So, the famous geneticist Timofev-Resovskiy meant that Mendel was the first to be the first to provide a fundamental characterization of the phenomena that were previously discussed in terms of hypotheses. In such a rank, it can be honored as a pioneer of mathematical misdirection in the biology of genetics.

Elbows

Varto mean that, according to the regularity of understanding Mendel, the bully was not formed on an empty track. Yogo doslіdzhennya runtuvali on the previous ones. Varto is especially important for advancing students:

• J. Goss, having carried out experiments on peas, grasped the growing lines from the fruits of the pink color. The trainers themselves have learned the laws of the first generation of hybrids, as well as unrepentant dominance. Mendel leeshe concretized and confirmed the hypothesis.
• Augustin Sarger is a tsarist, a kind of vibrant for his cultivation of harbuzov culture. Win first becoming vivchati spadkovi signs over sukupnistu, and okremo. You must have a firm grip, so that the transmission of quiet characteristics is devilishly wandering around. In such a rank, the decay is constant.
• Noden after spending the last different types takoi roslini, yak dope. Having analyzed the results, having taken into consideration the need, do not speak about the presence of dominant signs, as in the majority of cases they have been overridden.

In such a rank, even until the 19th century, boules were seen as dominance, however, as the first generation, as well as combinatorics, a sign of the onset of hybrids. Protect the out-of-the-box laws virobleno bouv. The very analysis of the explicit information and the implementation of the reliable methodology for the diagnosis is the main merit of Mendel.

Mendel's robotic technique

The laws of the adoption of Mendel's mark of bully were formed as a result of fundamental ideas. The strength of the brewed food is as follows:

• gazed over sukupnostі, but around;
• for the analysis, only alternative signs were selected, such as to make the sutta a difference between different species (the same person allowed the best to explain the regularities of the decline process);
• doslіdzhennya bouly fundamental (Mendel doslіjuvav great number sorts of peas, like boules yak clean, so hybrids, and then crumbling "plots"), which made it possible to talk about the effectiveness of the results;
• vikorystannya of exact kіlkіsnyh methods for the hour of the analysis otrimanikh danikh (victorious knowledge in the sphere of the theory of imovirnosti, Mendel having reduced the indicator of vіdhilen).

The Law of the Same Hybrid

Looking at the regularities of understanding, it is a sign that they come to especially respect for the same hybrids of the first generation. Win buv led the way to the notice, in the course of which the dad's forms were classed with one contrasting sign (form, farbuvannya too).

Mendel decided to carry out an experiment on two different types of peas - with chervony and white paper. As a result, the first generation of hybrid won the purple sutsvittya. Such a rank, it seemed, was to talk about the manifestation of dominant and recessive signs.

Varto vidmititi scho Daniy dosvid Mendel Bouv dinim. Win vikoristovuvav for experiments on the growth of growth with the same type of growth, the shape of the fruit, the size of the stem and the variety of options. We will let you know that all the hybrids are of the same order and are characterized by a dominant familiarity.

Nepovne Domіnuvannya

In the result of such nutrition, as a rule of thumb, it was carried out until it was done in roslin and living organisms. Otzhe, in the distance, stand up, as if you were looking for signs, you would be overwhelmed with strangleholds. So, for example, when the chickens of the black and white barn were lost, the gray offspring were cut off into the distance. So it was with deyakie roslins, since the witches with purple and white notes at the entrance gave rhymes with vidtinki. In such a rank, it is possible to speed up the first principle, having said, before the generation of the hybrid, the same signs, and the stench may be intermediate.

Splitting sign

Prodolving until the consistency of consistency was signaled, Mendel took in for the need to secure two sites of the first generation (heterozygous). Yak is the result, the offspring are trimmed, a part of which is small and іnsha is recessive. It is possible to go to an unimportant form, but another row of signs in the first generation of hybrids is not known, it is impossible to suffocate and can manifest itself in the advancing offspring.

Nezalezhne nasliduvannya

Bagato nutrition wikklikayut regularities of understanding. Around Mendel, there were also individuals, which appear one way one at a time after the decilcom sign. According to the skin circumference, the foreground regularities were adjusted. Ale the axis, which looks like a sign, without going into the distance, be it any regularity or combination. In such a rank, let us talk about the independence of the decline.

Gamete Purity Law

Deyakі regularnosti seduction signs, established by Mendel, mali is a hypothetical character. Mova yde about the law of purity of gametes, which is a glimpse of the fact that in them you eat only one alele from the bet, so that you can take revenge in the gene of the father's individual.

For Mendel's hours of technical support for the approval of the hypothesis. Protect the vcheny in the distance, formulate the galena of the firm. The essence of this field is in the fact that in the process of establishing hybrids of falloffs, signs are acquired by an unconscious vigilante, and not to be admitted.

Іtnі mind

Genetics is a whole science, which is consistent with the laws of understanding. Mendel zrobiv іstotny additions at її development, having wiped out the fundamentals of nutrition. Protest, and the stench came out, it was necessary to catch such a hundred minds:

• viral forms may be homozygous;
• alternative sign;
• however, is the same ymovirn_st of the formulation of small aleles in the hybrid;
• rіvna zhitєzdatnіst gametes;
• when the gametes are puffed up, admit it in the form of a drop;
• zygotes with different combinations of genes of life, the same;
• the number of individuals of another generation is wealthy, so that you can respect the results and be regular;
• showing signs of being fallen asleep in pouring out of minds.

Varto mean that there are signs of a large number of living organisms, including people.

The laws of understanding the sign of the people

Unimportant to those who have a lot of genetic principles that have been heard on the butt of roslin, for the creatures that people smell is also fair. Varto meanings are the following:

• Autosomal dominant - sedation of dominant signs that localize behind an additional autosome. At the same time, the phenotype can be strongly pronounced, as well as dim. With a whole type of sedation, the rate of rejection by a child of a pathological alele from a daddy becomes 50%.
• Autosomal recessive - the sedimentation of other row signs, which are associated with autosomes. Zahvoryuvannya is manifested behind the help of homozygotes, and the offense will be alely.
• Dominant X-type transmission is the transmission of dominant signs of deterministic genes. At the same time, women get sick 2 times more often than women.
• The recessive X-type is the time to see for a weak acquaintance. Poisoning anyway, signs of dependence appear at the sites of the male stati, and in women - only in the homozygous camp.

Basic understanding

It’s a sense of intelligence, as to correct the laws of understanding Mendel’s signs and genetic processes, which are more familiar with the main values ​​and understandings. Before them there are the following:

• The dominant sign is the important characteristic, which is the initial state of the gene and the development of recessive ones.
• The recessive sign is a characteristic that is transmitted in recessions, but not in the beginning.
• A homozygote is a diploid individual of a cell, in the chromosomes of the same cell of the assigned gene.
• Heterozygote is a diploid individual, abo klitin, which allows splitting and splitting of alely within the framework of one gene.
• Alele is one of the alternative forms of the gene, which is rosted in the singing chromosome and is characterized by a unique sequence of nucleotides.
• Alele is a couple of genivs, which are rostered in the quiet zones themselves and control the development of singing signs.
• to be found on the small numbers of chromosomes and are indicative of the manifestation of different signs.

Visnovok

Mendel formulated and practically did the basic laws of understanding. The description is directed from the butt of the roslin and the trocha is forgiven. But in practice, it is fair for all living organisms.

Biography

Gregor Johann Mendel- Vidatny chesky naturalist. Win was born in the Austrian Empire in the common village of the homeland. It's the hour of the baptism of wines, taking away the name of Johann.

To the vivchennyam of nature, the boy zhooplyuvavsya children, if he was pratsyuvav, he was a friend of a gardener, and then a gardener. After spending a decade at the Olmüts Institute, at the philosophical classes, he got $ 1843 $ haircut in Chent and accepted Gregor. Dal from $ 1844 to $ 1848 $ rik Gregor Mendel came to the Brunsky Theological Institute and became a priest. It’s an hour to start living independently in a wide range of sciences, in a natural history at the University of Venice.

Vidna Gregor Mendel himself was thrown into pre-existing processes of hybridization and statistical relations of hybrids. Mendel came with special respect for the food of the snakes of the roslin. About the experiments of wine vibra peas, which can be virostiti at the monastic garden. Itself spared the results of cich doslidzhen formed the basis of the famous "laws of Mendel".

With the first successes, Mendel transferred his experiment to the roslin of the family of the isstrovyh (clutching the hawk varieties), and having carried out the cracking of the growing bdzhil. The results of the experiments did not compare with the results of preliminaries and peas. They didn’t know yet what the mechanism of sedation was a sign of the peas, and the creatures evolved into the mechanism of sedation in peas.

Respect 1

Gregor Mendel Bouv of charms at the biological sciences. Having been recognized as the abbot of the monastery, he was no longer interested in science. I owe it to the merit of those who first came to know that they described the statistical regularities of the understanding of the hybrids. Learn more about them.

Mendel's first law

In order to lighten the results of the experiment, Gregor Mendel collected the growths with signs, so that they can be clearly seen. Tse buli kolіr that form of nasinnya.

A selection of wines has been removed from the "clean lines" of the roslin. The price of filling with a small amount and in the result of self-recording did not give a splitting sign.

When growing varieties of peas are shrunken - with purple quotations and with white quotations, in the first generation of Mendel's hybrids he trimmed out the mustache with purple quotations. Similar boules are the results, if we pick the peas from the weeds, we will grow the greens and the greens or the smooth and shriveled form.

Following the results of cich slides Gregor Mendel viviv the law of the same hybrids of the first generation , as mi know, as "the first Mendel's law". Christmas wines sound like this:

“When two homozygous organisms are lost. as one goes back to pure lines and one kind of one on one pair of alternative manifestations of singing signs, all the first generation of hybrids (F1) will appear as one kind and if they appear to be deprived of one thing.

Tsey law still call the law dominates the sign ... Vin means, which is the dominant sign of the phenotype, attracting recessive.

Another Mendel's law

Conduct further experiments with the hybrids of the first generation, Mendel vyaviv, who with the next generation of hybrids of the first generation, among themselves, the hybrid of the other generation, are aware of the new generation. The current law is formulated in the following order:

Business value 1

"When two heterozygous areas of the first generation are split between oneself, it is possible to promote splitting in the other generation in the singing numerical relationship: for the phenotype $ 3: 1 $, for the genotype $ 1: 2: 1 $".

Vin otriming the name splitting law ... Vin means that the recessive sign of the first generation of hybrids does not know, but that it should not be driven and then manifested in another hybrid generation.

Mendel's third law

In the first few years, Gregor Mendel brave enough for one pair of alternative signs. Win zatkavivsya to the food, like to take the mark before respect. Signs pochal combinuvatisya with themselves and wikkliked at the vcheny zbentezhennya. For a more detailed view, Mendel wanted to know the regularity of splitting. Vyavilosya, the hybrid of the first generation of the same, and in the other generation signs of the phenotype split in the proportion of $ 9: 3: 3: 1 $, rightly as a sign. Tsey law bulo named by law independent inheritance ... The season's formula for the viglead is as follows:

Business value 2

"When two individuals are clashed, one appears one after one for several pairs (two or more) alternative signs, genes that appear to be indications of one kind of one may be combined."

The laws, as per Mendel, gave an ear of new science - genetics.

ROZDIL 8. Rozgadati code of God: genetics and DNA evidence

One fine day at the dawn of civilization, on the beautiful walnut island of Kos, in kryshtalevo clean waters Of the Aegean Sea, a young woman, a representative of a noble family, unimportantly penetrated through the black road to the temple with a stone and marmura - Asklepion, - which turned out to be one of the first and most famous in the world. In the wake of the soul's hopes, it’s glad to know that he told Hippocrates about his non-private problem. Zhenka not long ago gave birth to a boy. I want to be healthy and chubby, Hippocrates, make a diagnosis, just look at the baby, wrapped in pelushki, and his mother. The dark color of the shkiri is not so red-blooded, witty about the stick of the mother's addiction to the African merchant. Yakby information about the inconsistency of the vozgolosu, vibrating the bi scandal, the whips widened the island of shy lisovoy pozhezhi, winking the unabated fierceness of the cholovik.

Ale Hippokrat - knowing about the decline and genetics of equal style, the bitch of the nobility in the V century BC. That is, it is an odd proponuvav explanation. Deyakі see the children, they can really be sedated from the fathers, but they didn’t vrakhovuvuyut the concept of "motherly feuds". Apparently before her, the children could have picked up rice, but they were growing in fallow because of the fact that their mothers were amazed for an hour of vaginosity. And otzhe, like having overcame her sister Hippocrates, a child, shy for everything, I filled up some negro rice for an hour of vaginosti, and the mother, who couldn’t respectfully vivify a portrait of an ephiope, which, as it was already, hung on the wall in the bedroom.

From the mysteries to the genetic revolution

From the first days of civilization until the end of the industrial revolution, representatives of the old faiths of the suspension from husbands - just an hour between the foolishness - were magical to the criticism of the slump. To navigate the present, I am amazed that power is transmitted from generation to generation. Who doesn’t know how we’re greeted when looking at the child of his own brother’s vlast at the time of trying to guess, from whom that rice came from: a troch of a smile, the number of children, the first growth of the old age Who did not feed, why did the child take the very tsi rice from the mother, the same tsi - from the dad, or why the brothers and sisters are so dissimilar one on one hour?

It’s not obvious nutrition. And what about rice, as in one generation you know, and then appear at the onuks? Chi dad can pass rice to children, "nabut" with a stretch of life: tips, knowledge, injury? What role is іdіgraє otochennya? Why is it that in every family one ailment itself is transferred to all generations, and for those who get a healthy and nervous feeling? I, mabut, nytrivozhnіshe food: how the "bomb of hopeful life" itself is transmitted, because of what is it?

Until the XX century, all riddles can be published at two simple meals. How do you control the slump according to the rules? I yak?

It’s wonderful, ale, it’s not mindful, as to whom the rice is transmitted from generation to generation, people spent a trivial hour with the mysterious mysteries. Thousands of years - near the heaths, steppes, forests and valleys - people shrieked the growing trees and young creatures, they cleaned out the signs, and some new organisms. Rice, corn, wheat, cows, horses became big, strong, firm, savory, friendly and productive. Kin 'the female stat that the donkey of the cholovic stat virobili the mule, which is instantly strong for the mother and smarter for the father. Not razumіuchi, as the same tse pratsyu, people vikoristovuvavlyaet decline for the stem of the Silskoy statehood - a rich and superb dzherel їzhі, as a result of the civilization and transformation of people among the citizens of the monarch.

Only one hundred and fifty rockets (or, to be more precise, 60) were left behind, we started to sort out. Not all, but enough, but decipher the basic laws, break into pieces, show the very essence of the decline and the stasis of the new knowledge, which have triggered revolutionary changes in practice in all areas of medicine. I, mabut, tsei cut through more, not be-like the one, similar to the general vibuch. Because of the decay rate that DNA, genes and chromosomes allow different characteristics to be transmitted from generation to generation, it is a robot that has not yet been completed.

Navigate in 1865, when the first revolutionary experiment showed that there was a decline in fairness of the Keru set of rules, which was known even more of the criteria - from the appearance of genes and chromosomes in the 1950s - the structure of the 19th century until the date of DNA ... The last century went to those who are zyasuvati, such as those who are rice, are transmitted from the dad to the child and how the eggs are cryptic without any characteristics of the healthy virginity and are transformed into people for 100 trillion people.

Ale mi dosi on the cob road. If I wanted to see genetics and DNA and it was revolutionary, I also looked at Pandori's box, showing a lot of possibilities, how to get the best out of it and get rid of lifeless food: because of the value of the therapy and genetic causes, the health of the from the unique genetic profile of the patient. Not even more about the number of ties to the genetics of the revolution, including the identification of DNA for the investigation of malignancies, the formation of genera, and if - who knows - in order to give children these talents our to the court.

And through the rich rocky times of the era of the Hippocrates of the Likars, the very idea of ​​"mother's enemies" was intriguing. It’s about saying three vipadas, which was small in the 19th century - on the ear of the 20th century.

The woman on this month of vaginosity zhahnula, pummeling the burning fire in the distance of the hut. It was scary at the thought that it could be a hut. Budinkas didn’t burn out, but a terrible image of a half-mum had lain in her “permanently before the eyes” with a stretch of vaginosity. The little girl, who was born through a splinter of months, had a red plyama on her forehead, and half a word was nagging behind the shape.

Vagitna woman, having pummeled the child with her hare lip, was so worried about those who instilled in her: the child would show up for the evening with the same shortage. So it happened: after 8 months, the baby was born with a hare lip. And not all history. Vipadok rose up, and a few vagit women came to wonder. Three of them also gave birth to children with a hare lip.

Another woman on this month of vaginosti was harassed to settle near her booth, a susid girl, her mother was seriously ill. The little girl often helped the gentlemen with the home right, and the woman once threw a glance at her middle finger, which she managed to get away from her partly through an unhappy drop at the front. As a result, the woman gave birth to a child, and the bully is healthy again - she does not crumble around the middle finger on the left hand.

Ruynuvannya myths: the riddle of the headlessness of the headless

Vrahoyuchi, as far as the science of croc went far beyond the last 150 years, it is possible to see how our ancestors explained the mechanism of growing rice. So, for example, the children of Hippocrates were respected, until the hour of conceiving the children and women from the child "cryptic particles" of the skin organ, and the change of the small particles allowed to transfer those children of rice. Ale the theory of Hippocrates is called pangenesis - a nebar bule was created by the walnut philosopher Aristotle. Vona explained that rice can be transmitted through the generation. At Aristotel, slyly, have their own original ideas... For example, when children are fed physical rice through the menstrual roof of the mother, and the soul before them comes through the father's sperm.

Oscillations of microscopes, or some of their scientific attachments, it was not booming, not marvelous, but the nutritional decline was lost to the tomb for 2000 years. People of the 19th century, like Hippocrates, have learned about the "doctrine of motherly hostility" lyakayuchi speeches. In medical journals and books I saw about hundreds of vipads, if women, who knew the emotional stress of a sick person (blame the price of goodness or indulgence), became more popular with children, among the analogies of such events. Shkopravda, already on the cob of the 19th century, there was a summation in the theory. “How can we celebrate such an effect for something shocking,” wrote the Scottish author of “Home Likar” Viljam Bukhan, “but the headless people aren’t a lot of people from France in the period of Robes’s ruthless rule?”

A lot of wondrous myths were saved until the middle of the 19th century. For example, the bull is even more popular, a bit about those who have children, who have lost the pictures in their wounded children, people who enjoy children without hands. Іnsha broadened the graveyard - scho "nabut rice" (tips of knowledge, as a person accumulates life by stretching out) can be transferred to children. One author, for example, in the 1830s, wrote about a Frenchman who was forced to speak English for even a short hour;

And one writer from the 19th century inceptively declared, nibi child will take away the "support-rukhovi organi" from the dad, and "the inner, whose life is important" - from the mother. Varto, in fact, that the basis of the wider theory was the popularity of the mules.

First cause: microscopes can help you find the first cause

Right up to the end of the 19th century, they didn’t care about science, they became the basis of revolutionary explosions in medicine’s haunts, and they looked at the power of nature. At the end of the day, there could not be any single thoughts about those who won’t win, and they certainly didn’t think about how the process was going.

The first devastation in the formulation of the theory of decline appeared on the ear of the 19th century, the part of the staff of the microscope was refined. At the moment, since the Danish Mysteries have made the eyepieces Hans Jansen and Yogo Sin Zakhariy have gone the first microscope, 200 years have passed, and until the ear of the 19th century, the technicalities have been thoroughly decided - we have allowed the most respectful people. A hard-hitting ruin was set up in 1831, since the Scottish doctrine Robert Brown revealed, so richly klin to revenge the dark central structure, which he called the core. And I want the role, as the core of the cell was eating at the food of the slump, and the ten years were left unattended, Brown took on the knowledge of the process, how to survive.

Mayzhe ten years later, the British license Martin Burry vivchiv tse misce dei shche glibshe. Win z'yasuvav, before the late comeback, if the celline of the sperm has been consumed before the female egg. So, today it sounds trite, if it’s just ten years old, there’s a popular myth about those who are not ready for the skin of the egg to take revenge on the creepy “procured” people, and the enthusiasm for sperm - to awaken people to life. Moreover, right up to the middle of the 19th century, most people were not taken, but only one spermatozoon and one egg line were to take part in conception. And without knowing the price of simple fertility (1 egg + 1 spermatozoa = 1 baby), it’s unwise to nip the first crocs to the true level of decline.

Nareshti, in 1856 p. Lyudin appeared, as she didn’t only know about the parity, and she was ready to dedicate ten years of life to her. If you want your robot, you can celebrate the feud of another idyll (win pratsyuvav by the calm garden in the backyard), your experiment will be bully, shvid for everything, nervously laborious. Those who have never seen enough before, have grown up in tens of thousands of pea pagones and meticulously documented how these little stubs were found in the skin generation. Piznishe vin not without pride wrote: "Crazy, you should take such a large-scale work on yourself, you need a singular smile."

Ale, until that moment, if Gregor Mendel finished at 1865 r. his robot, in response to food, as people put in thousands of years: singing rules... Take a bonus - krim komori stuffed with peas - after falling asleep with Mendel, having fallen asleep in science under the name of genetics.

Віх № 1

From peas to scientific principles: Gregor Mendel and the laws of decline

Narodzheniy in 1822 p. In a family of farmers near the Moravian village (which is at once located on the territory of the Czech Republic), Johann Mendel can be respected either as the newest priest in the history of religion, or the newest herald in the history of science. And you can, і tim, і іnshim. Yogo intellectual zdіbnostі without perechnі: Mendel is so blischee in his youth, that one of his readers recommending to him the Serpneviy Monastir from the nearest place Brunne. Tse buv is very special for quiet hours in ways, to which the little ones have gone, sob to be educated. There was a new name for Gregor. Until the moment when Mendel took the priesthood in 1847. (at the age of 26), having celebrated the hostility of the people who are attached to the scientific dyyalnosti. Mendel, because of the satisfaction of the Victorian school, in physics and mathematics, protesting failing to sleep on the rejection of the teacher's license. To reabilituate with such misfortunes, win the virus to the University of Vidency for chotiri rocky, devivate without any interesting subjects, including courses in mathematics and physics (such as Vikladav Kristian Doppler). Turning to the abbey in 1853, Mendel otrimovav posad Vicladac at the Brunne school in 1856. After trying to break it down, I sleep for a license.

First failure.

If I want to sleep on the landing, Vicladac Mendel doesn’t care, I’ll be educated by him - including the course of fruit growing, anatomy and physiology of growths and experimental methods - which, good, was important for whoever. As I know it’s, already at 1854, two rockets before, like failing his other vicladic sleep, Mendel, having experimented in the garden of the abbey, de-versed I saw peas, analyzed the plans and developed in a couple of rocks.

Evrika: 20 yew. hybrids, a simple proportion that three different laws

About who mіrkuvav Mendel, if having started his famous experiment with peas in 1856? Nasamper, the idea came to a new sound. Yak tse zazvychay buvaє, the clash of the young species of roselin and tvarin, a trivial hour became of interest for farmers in Moravia: the stench was magical to comprehend the quality of its decorative buds, fruit trees and sheep outside... I would like to experiment with Mendel bouly, perhaps a little bit of zoomed out to the bazhannyi to help the Muscovite Sylsk government, who also intrigued the seryoscience of nutritional decline. Ale if it’s okay, if you’re not magical about your ideas, then you’ll be better off for everything. At that hour, they were not allowed to drink, but the individual characteristics could be the subject of the vaccination. Apparently to the theoretical development, however, it was as if the stench wandered from generation to generation and it is not possible to vivify okremo. So, the very idea of ​​Mendel's experiment (the determination of the peculiarities of peas on the scale of a bagatokh generation) was eccentric for the second part (it didn’t fall off at all before), and it wasn’t vaguely about the genius.

At the same time, Mendel was putting on the same food, as well as putting on the same: what are the characteristics - why are the foxes and the vocal health of the chicks? Why does rice appear vaguely manifested and know, and why, as I formulated Mendel, is known again with "hostile regularity"? In order to improve nutrition, Mendel will need an organism that has two keys of power: characteristics that can be easily analyzed and analyzed, and a short reproductive cycle, so that the new generation could be seen all the time. The first axis, luck raged in such a way that Mendel's necessary organism appeared at his yard: a tse bouv Pisum sativum, traditional peas. Having spawned viroshuvati їkh near the garden of the abbey in 1856, win zoseredivya on 7 characteristics: іdtinok kvіtok (violet chi bіliy), roztashuvannya kvіtok (on stems chi top), nasinnya (zhovtiy form of greenery) pod color (greenery abo zhovty), pod shape (resembled or wrinkled), pagon height (large or small).

At the beginning of 8 rocky Mendel virosted thousands of roslin, reliably analyzed that rose according to the categories of its characteristics at the boundaries of the bagatokh generations. Tse bully neymovirna pratsya: for one deprivation of the robots' ruin, the robots virostiv 2500 roslin of another generation, having documented the deprivation of ponad 20 yew. hybrid I wish I had completed my analysis before 1863, the intriguing sorcerers were found on the very cob.

To do a fair assessment of Mendel’s judgment, brutalize respect for one of the simplest food: when peas were sprinkled with violet and white vines, we went through the growing lines with violet vines; and when the roses are clasped with violet stamps, there are more bulbs with violet stamps, and there are more bulbs with violet stubs? In other words, de same in the first generation of roselin with violet quotations bul "Instructions" for bili quotations? Those same became and due to the increased characteristics. When growing roslin with green and green fruits in all "plots" of the first generation, the fruit is buli zhovtoy koloru; Ale, if the growths of the roses were clasping among themselves, in the majority of representatives of the other generation there are peas of a bold color, and in some of them - green. Does the first generation have "instruction" zmusiti green peas?

For that matter, Mendel had retaliated by documenting that distribution for the categories of thousands of hybrids at the scale of many generations, as soon as there were new views. In the dews of another generation, the same tsіkave spіvvіdnoshennya: 3 to 1. On the skin, three weeds with violet notes brought one with bіlimi. On the skin, three growths with the same fruits fell one of the green. One dwarf fell on the skin, three temples, and so on.

For Mendel, the goal is a statistical misbehavior, and the definition of an important principle, a basic law. In the case of the fact that they themselves could be aware of such declining mechanisms, they step by step approached the mathematical and physical explanation of why such declining figures were transmitted from fathers to their offspring. At the moment of realizing the wines, letting go, the slump can turn on the shifting of the singing "element" (factor) from the skin of the daddy - those who at once are called genes.

I tse buv leash a cob. Routing on the analysis of the characteristics of peas, Mendel intuitively guessed the actions of the most important laws of decay. So, for example, it’s the fault of the correct pattern about those who have a distinctive characteristic of the offspring, two “elements” (gene allele) - one type of skin dermatitis - and there can be elements dominant abo recessive... With such a rank, one hundred percent of the skin characteristics, when the sites are dominated by a dominant "element" from one of the fathers and a recessive one, then by demonstrating a dominant sign, altogether haunted recessive, as if transferred to the offensive generation. At the time of emergence of quotations, as the offspring had subdued the dominant "violet gene" from one of the fathers and the recessive "beliy" from the other, in the latter there were quotations of the violet color. At the same time, having acquired the nose of the recessive gene of bilih quitiv and then passing it on to their offspring. Tse nareshty explained how the characteristics could miss a whole generation.

Primed on tsikh and іnshih visnovki, Mendel has broken three of his most famous laws about those, like the "elements" of the decline, are transmitted from the dad to the offspring.

The law of the sameness of the first generation: when two pure lines are shrunken (dominant and recessive for one familiarity), all the first generation will be the same for the dominant acquaintance.

Splitting law: when the spaces of the first generation are shrunken, the other generation has individuals as both dominant and recessive, and the singing ratio is 3: 1.

To clarify the law, Mendel proponated law of gamete purity: The individual has grown up and has two elements, which lead to the formation of signs (two alleles of the genes), from which one dominates (to manifest). With the growth of statin cells (gametes), the skin is consumed as often as two alleles. With the zlitty cholovic and female gametes, the alleles of the gene do not shrink, but are transmitted to the oncoming generation in a pure viglyad.

The law of the independent inheritance of the sign: when individuals are clashed with different signs, geni, who are seen for them, settle down just one way of one.

For a fair assessment of Mendel's geniality, it is important to guess that for the moment the robot does not know anything about the physical decline. No concept of DNA, gene chi chromosomes. When there is more knowledge about those, which may be "elements" of decline, Mendel seeks a new one directly from science, if the original term - genetics and genetics - was formulated by ten years of age.

A vital topic: hopes of your righteousness, ale of underestimations for life

In 1865, when nine years of growing up to thousands of pea grows and an analysis of their characteristics, Gregor Mendel presented his decorations to the Brunnian suspension of the glimpses of nature, and the offensive fate was poured by the light of the classic robot over the Longs. There are one of the greatest turning points in the history of science and medicine. Bulo was known to be fed up, yak tortured people with thousands of years.

What kind of reaction? Mlyava baiduzhist.

So, so, at the beginning of 35 years of Mendel, the robot was ignored, interpreted incorrectly. They just forgot about her. It’s impossible to say that I’m not magical: it’s early in my life that I’ve sent my robot to Karl Negeli, the infused botanist from Munich. And Negeli didn’t just know how to evaluate Mendel’s pratsy, but he didn’t read the list at the bottom of the report, in any case, giving the robot a good idea, mabut, most of the criticism in the history of science. Having vivchivshis doslіdzhennya, zasnovane on the basis, as they took up ten rockets and craved virostity for 20 yew. Roslin, Negeli, writing: "I have a hostility to experiment, but I can only experiment ..."

The problem, as vazhayut current history, is that Mendel's colleagues did not understand the significance of his vision. Through a conservative look at the development and in those cases where the rice is uncomfortable, it’s unfortunate, it’s not easy to analyze, Mendel’s experiment was more cold. Mendel pushed forward the science of more rock, and then pinched it about 1868 r. - it’s not good to go to the abbot’s dignity in the Brunn Monastery. Until death (r. 1884), I’m not disgusting about those who call one fine day the master of genetics.

Yak bi there was not boo, Mendel buv perekonaniya at the importance of his view. Behind the words of one abat, for a few months before his death, he said in song: “It’s time, if the importance of the laws that I have heard will be appreciated”. Also, for the deyakim tribute, he said to the novices of the monastery not good until death: "I am overthrowing, so all the light is to evaluate the significance of the cich doslidzhen."

After 35 years, if they made a decision and rightly assessed their prats, once they saw that Mendel didn’t know about it, but they didn’t have a financial, promising perspective. Yogo laws of decline, stagnation is not only to the growth, but the first to the creatures of people.

And now, from the times of the era of scientific genetics, nutrition has naturally grown: are there any signs of decline?

Віх № 2

Doslidzhennya territory: gliboke zanurennya at the tamnitsa klitini

The important news began to form in the 1870s, approximately at the same hour, since Mendel felt hope for the success of his experiments. To protect the fall asleep, the bulo was laid by a number of capitals earlier. In the 1660s, the English physicist Robert Hooke became the first human being, as she glanced through the simplest microscope at the shmatok of the cortical tree and saw those who were called krykhitny "komirkami". Allegedly, 1800-ti of Nimetsky students were able to vivchit and respected nareshty viyaviti, de same vyinikє droppability: at the heart of the core.

The first important hole was made at the age of 1838–1839, if the microscope was improved by the German pupils Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann, because of the importance of the clinics as structural and functional units of all living things. Then at 1855 r., Having developed a myth about those, that the cells appear from nizvidki, spontaneously, Rudolf Virkhov's nimitsky conception, bare his famous formula: Omnis cellula e cellula ("Skin cells from cells"). We give a clue to the firm Virchows, giving another key clue about those, the signs themselves are taken for a decline: as the skin cells were from the outside, then the information needed for the formation of the new skin cells (about the back Nareshti, 1866 p. Nimetsky biologist Ernst Haeckel directly stating: cell nucleus, the significance of what is known as 1831 r. Robert Brown.

Until the 1870s, all the more glimpsed were the nucleus of the cricket, the mysteries of the manifestation, which were seen in the case of clerical growth. So, 1879 p. Nimetsky biologist Walter Flemming vivifies in detail the manifestations, calling the whole process mitosis (indirect rozpodil). In his robots, published in 1882, Flemming for the first time accurately described the tsikavi podії, which were seen right before the subcategory: in the core, there were two thread-like structures, which made us part of them. In 1888, if they started talking about the role, how the threads are playing at the falloff, the famous anatomist Genrikh Valdeyur, one of the great authors of new terms in biology, having proponated a new name for them - as you have gone to

Віх № 3

DNA: vіdkrittya ta zabuttya

Until the end of the 19th century, the light, which was easily ignored the first great stage in the development of genetics, violated zechtuvati and others - the evidence of DNA. So, it’s so. DNA, like goiters, is linked to its genius, chromosomes, rice decay, nareshty, genetic revolution in the XXI century. I, as well as in the fall of the zealous proteges before Mendel, that law about the decline, the pardon was not short-lived. Unsatisfactory writing of his own message in 1869 p. Bula DNA is practically forgotten for the first time.

Good luck for all this, the Swiss physiologist Fridrikh Misher, who finished medical school, took the key decision about the future career. Through a weak hearing (inherited from the childhood of infections), the intelligence of the patients, and the visibility of the patients in clinical medicine, is clearly visible. Having become a laboratory assistant at the University of Tübingen in Nimechchin, Misher has recently been introduced by Ernst Haeckel about the secrets of the decline that can be found in the nucleus of the cell. Vibrated the most beautiful cells for vivchennya kernels, in the midst of the dead and in bloodsheds (as to take revenge from the great number in pus) from the surgical bandits, taken to the names of the most close ones.

The names of the most inappropriate images for the robot, Misher gave a lot of bloodshed cells in the flow of young, cheery words, left before they could see from the blood of a previously unheard-of spoluca. Not being neither white, nor fat, nor carbohydrate, the speech is low in acidity and has a large amount of phosphorus, which was not present in the past in the latest organic spoluks. Do not be afraid of the zhodnyy uyavlennya about those, well, Misher calling the speech nucleus. Zvidsy pishov current term DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Misher published his own science books in 1871, and then a lot of rocky assigning the nucleus of the new generation to the children. Ale yogo spravzhnya nature has become a tame. I want the Misher to be overwhelmed, so the nucleus of life is necessary for the function of the cell, I have seen the idea of ​​those who grab a role in the decline. We didn’t make any difference. For example, the Swiss anatomist Albert von Kelliker mav smilivist declare that the nucleus, the newest, the material basis of the fallback mechanisms. After staying with him in 1895 p. Edmund Bicher Wilson, the author of the classic clerk "The Cage and the Role in the Development and the Decline", wrote in one of his works:

... І in such a rank we come to a dazzling visnovka about those, that on the droopness the physical transfer of a specific chemical component from the daddy to the offspring can take place.

The first axis, for a few crocs to the opening, the normal change of light, in the middle, was flattened on a new eye. Light buv is simply not ready to accept DNA as a biochemical warehouse decline. For a few rockies about nucleus, they practically forgot. What did you think of when trying to read DNA right up to 1944? The role here was played by a few factors, ale, mabut, who found the spot in the one that DNA was seen as a non-dignified form of science. Yak meaning Wilson in the last form of his partner in 1925 p. (it was overwhelmed by the words of the buried in 1895), the "universes" ingredinti nuclei were not overwhelmed, especially in the context of the "inconvenient" versatile bilinguals. How could DNA be able to tell for the whole life's versatility?

Not until the 1940s didn’t grow food on the food chain, ale the well-known Mishera made one strong inflow to science as a minimum: she won’t wicked to a new level of thought, as they brought up a forgotten stage until the re-discovery of the forgotten stage. I not once, but three times.

Віх № 4

Narodzheniy Nanovo: the resurrection of the monastic priest that yogo vchennya about the decline

Maybe spring is that new season, but little can you compete with the revivals, which went up on the cob in 1900, if Gregor Mendel sent the thirty-five-point zabuttya that law about the decline turned to life with new forces. What would be a very reasonable payment for dovgu baiduzhist, whose inevitable result of a new round of interest to scientific society, albeit on the cob 1900 r. To navigate not one, but three people, one in a single place saw the laws of decline - by the year they saw that they had already seen the humble priest after ten years.

The Dutch botanist Hugo De Fries became the first, who barely voiced his vision, since his experiment in breeding roslin showed those same spivvidnoshennya 3 to 1, as soon as Mendel came. Let's step forward Karl Correns, a nymetsky botanist, who, having spent his time with peas, helped him to re-discover the laws of decline. First, I published my own news, based on experiments with pea cultivation, Austrian botanist Erich Chermak-Zeizenekk. Vin meaning: "I read about the most recent experiences about those that Mendel has already carried out such experiments, and the scale is significant, not mine, because of the fact that they did not know how to explain it, and what I have already explained."

I would like some serious super-conversations about those who have been voted out by the author of the repeated disclosure, but Chermak didn’t know about it from “other essences between him and Correns on the basis of the participants in the partnership of naturalists.” Ale, yak dodav Chermak, must be kindly explained about those who saw [them] the laws of decline in 1900 r. the scale of Mendel's achievement in the epoch, and after the end of rocky, a scientific robot was carried out, which signifi- cantly forgave them. "

For that, as Mendel's laws evolved in the XX century, dedals were more honored by the beasts on those riddles "odinitsi", as the decline began. He didn’t know for sure, there were some stinks, even before 1903 r. American Dances by Walter Sutton and Nimetsky Dances by Theodore Boveri, the smell was rosy in the chromosomes, and they came in pairs in the middle of the cells. Nareshti, 1909 p. Danish biologist Wilhelm Johannsen proponuvav for cich one name - geni.

Віх № 5

Persha is genetic ailment: the females of two brothers, the chorna slaughter and the same proportion

Follow the black slaughter on the child's back to shave off the little daddy, ale from the look of the British likar Archibald Garrod, the stinks boiled down to the cliche problems connected with the exchange of speeches. The first to the right here is not in the canoe of Garrod. Khvoroba, with which I am right, was called alkaptonurієyu. Most of the best show you turn on the change of color to the black one, but in general it is not safe and not very often, not just one of the millions of people in the whole world. If Garrod began to vivify alkaptonuria for the example of the 1890s, he wondered if Viklikan's ailment was not a bacterial infection, since he had been healthy a lot earlier, but "we would like to hear broken words." Aleh deprived of vivchivshi the tributes about children, as they suffered from the sickness - whose fathers mayzhe were born with two brothers and sisters, - win know the tale, yaka mittovo changed our ninishnu at і day of spadkovosti, genіv that ailments.

If Garrod has published the previous results of his last years in 1899, he knew about the genius, and the decline was no more, but not the least. That is, after letting one of their key points out of the field: in case of a few mountain children without alkaptonuria, from a few ailments, the knowledge of the children from 3 to 1 with violet quotes - one with bili), a statement about the transfer of decongesting signs and the role of "dominant" and "recessive" elements (gene alleles). In the pre-older Garrod, the dominant characteristic of the bull is "normal cutting", and the recessive characteristic is "black", and in the children of the other generation, it also appeared during the next generation: for three children, from the normal cutting in one child. Garrod didn’t mind the basic proportions, but Alevon didn’t know about the respect of the British cooked William Bateson, who called Garrod, as only felt about his life. Garrod had not bargained for a while with Bateson at the fact that Mendel's laws give a new twist, about what kind of guilt he didn’t conceal: the ailment, how to win it, is clearly of a recessionary nature.

In 1902, the gross results of his robotics, Garrod took the additional purchase: symptoms, the loss of speech and the role of genes and recession. Win visloviv popped up, so the alkaptonuria is surrounded by two recessive "elements" (gene alleys) - one type of skin defect, and the defective allele is recessive. But it is not less important, having visualized a biochemical scheme, you should obruntuvati about those, like a defective "gene" wiklik, and ailments will appear. Win, zazhayuchi on everything, like a rank virobliav defective enzyme, which, being undeveloped, vikonuvati its normal metabolic function, leading to the appearance of a black slaughter. The staff of the interpretation of Garrod has reached one more serious result. Vin, letting it go, does not try to break the geni: the stench vibrates the bottles, for example, ferments. If the genome is not right, it’s defective, it’s healthy, it’s wrong. defective bіlok, how can you provoke a sickness.

Garrod continued to the robot, having occupied himself with the description of some of the metabolic diseases, which summarized the apparent defective genes and enzymes (which are now called Garrod's zoshite and include, but are not alcaptonuria, albinurism). Aleksei knew the next day, but they made it clear that they were right and appreciated the significance of their findings. Christmas Garroda is playing around like a lump of people in history, like demonstrating in the distance the links between genes and illnesses. Yogo robot gave an ear to the modern concepts of genetic screening, recessive decay and riskiness of native shloves.

And Bateson, ymovirno, natchnenny by the preschoolers of Garrod, 1905 p. Skarzhivshis in the sheets, so a new direct in science did not start a garnoy name. “It’s necessary,” having written vin, “and if you want to see it, then the word "genetics" Mozhlvo, pіdіyde ".

On the ear of the 1900s, unaffected by the growing list of important achievements, science was experiencing a crisis of self-designation and the bullet was split into two tabori. Mendel that yogo the followers established the laws of decline, but they could not explain how the bullets and biological "elements" and how the stench was pratsyuvali. And Fleming and some of them showed a lot of bio-technical parameters in the rooms, but I didn't even think about the fact that the stench was lowered to the point of recession. Until 1903 p. and the two became closer, since Walter Sutton and Theodore Bover were allowed to start, that there were "one" drop in chromosomes, and the chromosomes themselves were settled in pairs (one kind of mother and one kind of father) and "can" be the legitimate basis. Ale Liche 1910 p. The first American doctrine - peredusim, on a whim - having tied two lights on a single theory of decay.

Віх № 6

Yak namistini in namisto: linking between genes and chromosomes

U 1905 p. Thomas Morgan, a biologist at Columbia University, was skeptical about the idea that chromosomes play the role of decay, and sarcastically responded to the behavior of colleagues who developed a “chromosome” theory. The intellectual atmosphere of that hour. In a way, on Morgan's thought, the idea about those who can take revenge on the chromosomes of rice is similar to the idea of ​​"preformation": if there is a popular myth about those who can "procure" people from the skin. Ale in 1910 p. for Morgan, everything changed, for that it was because of the flies.

It is a fiery pest (call out the eyes of the drosophila). A little more, Morgan was happy, if he had baptized a cholovich person with a bile of eyes and a woman with chervony. The first ones to watch out for the boules are no worse than wondrous: as the first generation, all the flies have little red eyes, and in the other, they know the difference is 3 to 1 (three red flies per one battery). A little more unsuccessful for Morgan, as she turned the whole basis of her mind off the decline, a new henchman became the call: all representatives of the white squares of the boule cholov_choї statі.

A whole new twist - the idea about those who like rice can be used only in one article - we are fundamentally meaningful at the connection with the messages, we are breaking down for a bit of rock. U 1905 p. American biologists Netty Marya Stevens, who first brought fruit flies to Thomas Morgan's laboratory, and Edmund Bicher Wilson discovered that two chromosomes: X and Y. one X і one Y. If Morgan beat down all the big flies of the cholovych state biliy kolir an eye, as maє buti are tied with a cholovic chromosome. Tse zmusilo yogo zrobiti conceptual stribok, which is the fault of repairing the opir with rocks. Vіn virіshiv, shо geni, shvidshe for everything, є partly Chromosomy.

In 1913, without a break, one of the students of Morgan, Alfred Stertevant, reached the turning point, if the minds of the minds, but the genes can rightly be separated from the middle of the chromosomes in a linear fashion. Then, after a sleepless night, Stertevant opened the first genetic map from the light - the map of the X-chromosome of Drosophila, placing five genes on the line map, and having created it among them.

At 1915 p. Morgan and his scientists published the book "Mechanisms of Mendelian Decline" as a sign for science. Two earlier okremos have lost the light (Mendel's law of decay and chromosomes and genes in all the middle cells) now have one whole. If in 1933 p. Morgan, having recognized the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his insight, was leading the way, meaning that the theory about those genes rooted in chromosomes "like beads on namisto" ". A few more recent events have brought Morgan's rightness to the fore, and on the second day of the boule's knowledge “fundamental and essential for the pre-development and sentiment of the sickly ailments of the people”.

Віх № 7

Reconstructing truth: the knowledge of the DNA test and the tsikavi power

Until the end of the 1920s, there was a lot of secrets that were created from a decline. The transfer of parameters can be explained with the help of Mendel's laws, laws are linked with genes, and genes - with chromosomes. Zdavalosya b, the theory, went out, hunted everything.

Nichogo good. The slump has become a mystery in conjunction with two serious problems. First, most of the students respected that genes are made up of bricks, and not DNA. In other words, it’s not disgusting about those, like geni, who want to smell like bully, but the signs began to fall. Riddles appeared in 1928, since the British microbiologist Frederic Griffith worked on this problem - the roots of pneumonia vaccines. Not reaching the whole thing, but then with success, having revealed another key clue.

Grіffіt took care of the vivacs of Streptococcus pneumoniae, if it was cured. One form of bacteria, virulent to the strain S, established smooth colonies, and the insha, innocent to the strain of R, was inert. Bacteria of the S stam have become ill, splinters of a polysaccharide capsule, which seized the information from the immune system. The bacteria to the R strain turned out to be not dull: they did not fume such capsules, the stench was recognized that was known by the immune system. Then Griffith emerged even more marvelously: if mishas were introduced with a bunch of non-tough R strains, and then a virulent one, if they were poured into S strains, they all got lost. During the course of several experiments Graffiti zrozumiv, so that in front of a few R bacteria, in the form of the rank "swelled" in virulent type S bacteria, the capsule will be sealed. In other words, not affecting those who are virulent bacteria S.

What is the same tse bulo and yak tse bulo tied with the falloff and genetics? Griffith is so and not knowing about the tse. In 1941, a few years ago, until the opening of the city center, he died from a Nimetsian shell before the hour of bombardment in London.

If the robot Grіffіt, yaka described the "transformation" of small bacteria in a virulent form, published in 1928, Oswald Everі, a report from the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Sciences in New York, with the results obtained. What is it, vasne, vin mav yim viriti? Ever engaged in the development of bacteria, described by Griff, the remaining 15 rocky, including the capturing capsule, and fiercely, but one type of mig "transforms" into the first, throwing your wiklik. Aleksey Griffith's visas were confirmed, ever becoming one of his last postors, and until the mid-1930s, his colleague Colin MacLeod showed that an effect could be made at the Chalice of Peter. Now it was deprived of z'yasuvati, which itself was the cause of transformation. Until 1940, when Ever and Macleod got close to the news, the third presenter, McLean McCarthy, came to them. Ale vznachennya speech bulo to foldable zavdannyam. In 1943, if comrades were tormented by trying to sort out a pile of bricks, fat, carbohydrates, nuclei and other words, Ever tried to skip their brothers: “Try to know the active storage element! That robot is a hearty soul that break your heart. " Indeed, when Everi added a phrase that was intriguing: “Ale, I’m ready, you can, we will see you”.

I, all right, everything went well for them. U fierce 1944 p. Everi, Macleod and McCarthy published the robot, in which they said, “the transforming principle” is designated by them as the path of the simple - but not so simple - to the process of usunification. Having protested everything that could be known in the whole folding clique of sums, the stench sank: only one speech transformed the R-pneumococks into the S-form. Tse buu nuclein is the same speech, which was first designated by Fridrikh Misher, and the stench is now called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. This is a classic classic, I use my first scientific robot, yaka gave proof of the fact that DNA itself - that herself a molecule that is susceptible to decay. "Would you like to think about it?" - writing to Everi brothers.